Lehninger Biochemistry: Core Concepts and Applications (International Edition)

Name: Lehninger Biochemistry: Core Concepts and Applications (International Edition)
Price: 6890 ISK
Availability: InStock
Author: Michael M. Cox; Aaron A. Hoskins; Alain Viel; Judith Simcox
ISBN: 9781319595463

Höfundar: Michael M. Cox; Aaron A. Hoskins; Alain Viel; Judith Simcox (Útgáfa: 1)

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Lehninger Biochemistry: Core Concepts and Applications offers a streamlined, focused exploration of key biochemistry concepts, tailored for students in Chemistry, Biophysics, and other STEM fields. Authored by the creators of the renowned Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, this text emphasises clear, concise explanations, supported by visually engaging figures and relevant medical applications.

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Útgefandi: Macmillan Learning

ISBN: 9781319595463

Print ISBN: 9781319589967

Format: ePub

Útgáfa: 1

Höfundar: Michael M. Cox; Aaron A. Hoskins; Alain Viel; Judith Simcox

Tungumál: English

Útgefið: 04/04/2025

Prent takmörkun á líftíma: 100

Prent takmörkun: 10

Afritunar takmörkun: 2

Kaflar

About this Book
Cover Page
Accessibility
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
About the U.S. Edition Cover
About the Authors
Preface
A Note About AI
Contents in Brief
Contents
Chapter 1 Biochemistry Concepts and Themes
1.1 Science and the Scientific Method
What Is Science?
What Is the Scientific Method?
1.2 Organisms, Cells, Chromosomes, and Genes
Organisms Belong to Three Distinct Domains of Life
Cells Are the Structural and Functional Units of All Living Organisms
Viruses Cannot Live Independently of Cells
Bacterial Cells Feature a Relatively Simple Architecture and Streamlined Lifestyles
Eukaryotic Cells Have a Variety of Membranous Organelles
Cells Contain a Wide Range of Supramolecular Structures
Major Model Organisms and Systems Are Useful in Biochemistry
The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional Structures
1.3 The Organic Chemistry of Biochemistry
Major Organic Species Are Found in Cells
Macromolecules Are Major Constituents of Cells
Molecular Weight and Molecular Mass Are Expressed by Distinct Conventions
Nucleophiles and Electrophiles Define How Many Reactions Proceed
Cofactors Facilitate Particular Classes of Biochemical Reactions
1.4 A Review of Basic Thermodynamics
Equilibrium Constants and Rate Constants Describe Distinct but Related Thermodynamic Parameters
Organisms Transform Energy and Matter from Their Surroundings
Creating and Maintaining Order Requires Work and Energy
1.5 Using Data Banks
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 2 Water: The Chemistry of Life
2.1 Weak Interactions in Aqueous Systems
Hydrogen Bonds Give Water Its Unusual Properties
Water Interacts Electrostatically with Charged Solutes
Nonpolar Gases Are Poorly Soluble in Water
The Hydrophobic Effect Is an Entropy-based Phenomenon
Van der Waals Interactions and Other Weak Interactions Are Key to Macromolecular Structure and Function
2.2 Ionization of Water, Weak Acids, and Weak Bases
The Ionization of Water Is Expressed by an Equilibrium Constant
The pH Scale Designates H+ and OH– Concentrations
Weak Acids and Bases Have Characteristic Acid Dissociation Constants
Titration Curves Reveal the pKa of Weak Acids
2.3 Buffering Against pH Changes in Biological Systems
A Buffer System Resists Changes in pH in Response to Added Acid or Base
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Relates pH, pKa, and Buffer Concentration
Weak Acids or Bases Buffer Cells and Tissues Against pH Changes
Bicarbonate Is an Important Biological Buffer System
Untreated Diabetes Produces Life-Threatening Acidosis
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 3 Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
3.1 Amino Acids
What Is an Amino Acid?
The Amino Acids in Proteins Are L Stereoisomers
Amino Acids Can Be Classified by R Group
Some Amino Acids Absorb Ultraviolet Light
Uncommon Amino Acids Also Have Important Functions
Amino Acids Can Act as Acids and Bases
Amino Acids Differ in Their Acid-Base Properties
3.2 Peptides and Proteins
Peptides Are Chains of Amino Acids
Disulfide Bonds Occur in Some Proteins
Ionization Behavior Can Distinguish Peptides
Some Proteins Contain Chemical Groups Other than Amino Acids
3.3 Purifying Proteins
Proteins Can Be Separated and Purified
Proteins Are Detected and Quantified Based on Their Functions
Proteins Can Be Separated and Characterized by Electrophoresis
3.4 The Primary Structure of Proteins and Protein Chemistry
There Are Levels of Complexity to Protein Structure
The Function of a Protein Depends on Its Amino Acid Sequence
There Are Multiple Ways to Reduce a Polypeptide Chain into Fragments
Mass Spectrometry Provides Information on Molecular Mass, Amino Acid Sequence, and Entire Proteomes
Amino Acid Sequences Provide Important Biochemical and Evolutionary Information
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 4 Protein Structure
4.1 Forces and Interactions That Stabilize Protein Structures
Protein Structures Are Largely Stabilized by Weak Interactions
Hydrogen Bonding, Ion Pairs, and van der Waals Interactions Also Contribute to Protein Folding
The Conformation of the Peptide Bond Constrains Polypeptide Conformation
4.2 Secondary Protein Structure
The α Helix Maximizes the Use of Polypeptide Hydrogen Bonds
The β Strand Is a Common Secondary Structure with an Extended Conformation
Ramachandran Plots Describe the Distribution of Secondary Structure in a Protein
4.3 Tertiary and Quaternary Protein Structure
Fibrous Proteins Have a Single Type of Secondary Structure
The Fibrous Protein Collagen Is the Most Abundant Protein in Mammals
Silk Is Made from a Fibrous Protein with β-Sheet Secondary Structure
Globular Proteins Are Compact and Highly Varied in Three-Dimensional Structure
Protein Tertiary Structures Can Be Described in Terms of Motifs and Domains
Intrinsically Disordered Proteins Lack Stable Tertiary Structures
Quaternary Structure Describes the Organization of Multisubunit Proteins
Biomolecular Structures Can Be Determined Using a Variety of Methods
The Protein Data Bank Is a Repository for Biomolecular Structures
4.4 Protein Denaturation and Folding
Loss of Protein Structure Results in Loss of Function
Amino Acid Sequence Determines Tertiary Structure
Protein Folding Occurs by Defined Pathways and Can Be Assisted by Chaperones
Defects in Protein Folding Cause Human Disease
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 5 Protein Function and Ligand Binding
5.1 Reversible Protein-Ligand Binding
Ligands Bind to Proteins Reversibly at Binding Sites
Protein-Ligand Interactions Can Be Described Quantitatively
5.2 Reversible Binding of a Ligand to a Protein: Oxygen Binding by Myoglobin
Oxygen Can Bind to a Heme Prosthetic Group
Globins Are a Family of Oxygen-Binding Proteins
The Binding of Oxygen to Myoglobin Can Be Described Quantitatively
Protein Structure Affects How Ligands Bind
5.3 Reversible and Cooperative Binding of a Ligand to a Protein: Oxygen Binding by Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Subunits Are Structurally Similar to Myoglobin
Hemoglobin Undergoes a Structural Change on Binding Oxygen
Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively
Cooperative Ligand Binding Can Be Described Quantitatively
Hemoglobin Also Transports H+ and CO2
5.4 Medical Conditions Related to Hemoglobin
CO Binding to Hemoglobin Poses a Serious Health Risk
Altered Hemoglobin Subunit Interactions in Sickle Cell Anemia Cause Pain and Suffering
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 6 Protein Function and Enzymes
6.1 What Are Enzymes?
Most Enzymes Are Proteins
Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions Occur Within Active Sites
Enzymes Affect Reaction Rates, Not Equilibria
Reaction Rates and Equilibria Are Described by Constants
6.2 How Enzymes Work
Noncovalent Interactions Between Enzyme and Substrate Are Optimized in the Transition State
Enzymes Use a Variety of Additional Chemical Mechanisms to Facilitate Catalysis
Coenzymes Facilitate Particular Types of Reactions
6.3 Enzyme Kinetics
The Steady State of an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction Reflects the Concentration of ES
The Relationship Between Substrate Concentration and Reaction Rate Can Be Described Quantitatively
Scientists Compare Enzymes Using Vmax and Km
Enzymes Are Subject to Reversible and Irreversible Inhibition
Irreversible Inhibitors Inactivate Enzymes
6.4 Chymotrypsin and Enzymatic Catalysis
The Chymotrypsin Mechanism Involves Acylation and Deacylation of an Active-Site Ser Residue
An Understanding of Protease Mechanisms Led to Treatments for HIV
An Understanding of Enzyme Mechanism Leads to Useful Antibiotics
6.5 Regulatory Enzymes
Some Enzymes Are Regulated by Allosteric Conformational Changes in Response to Modulator Binding
Some Enzymes Are Regulated by Reversible Covalent Modification
Some Enzymes Are Regulated by Proteolytic Cleavage of an Enzyme Precursor
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 7 Carbohydrates
7.1 Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
The Two Families of Monosaccharides Are Aldoses and Ketoses
The Common Monosaccharides Have Cyclic Structures
Sugars Containing and Forming Aldehydes Are Reducing Sugars
Disaccharides Consist of Two Monosaccharides Joined by a Glycosidic Bond
7.2 Polysaccharides
Some Homopolysaccharides Are Storage Forms of Fuel While Others Have Structural Roles
Glycosaminoglycans Are Heteropolysaccharides of the Extracellular Matrix
7.3 Glycoconjugates: Peptidoglycans, Proteoglycans, Glycoproteins, and Glycolipids
Peptidoglycan Reinforces the Bacterial Cell Wall
Proteoglycans Are Glycosaminoglycan-Containing Macromolecules of the Cell Surface and Extracellular Matrix
Glycoproteins Are Proteins with Covalently Attached Oligosaccharides
Glycolipids and Lipopolysaccharides Are Membrane Components
7.4 Carbohydrates as Signaling Molecules
Oligosaccharides Have Highly Diverse Structures
Lectins Are Proteins That Bind Specifically to Complex Oligosaccharides and Mediate Many Biological Processes
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 8 Lipids, Membranes, and Membrane Proteins
8.1 Membrane Lipids
Fatty Acids Are the Hydrocarbon Chains of Membrane Lipids
Fatty Acid Composition of Lipids Impacts Health
Structural Elements Distinguish Membrane Lipid Classes
Membrane Lipids Are Amphipathic Molecules That Form Lipid Bilayers
Membrane Lipid Composition Impacts Membrane Fluidity
8.2 The Architecture of Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins Differ in How They Associate with the Membrane Bilayer
Integral Membrane Proteins Span Membranes and Can Be Transporters
Peripheral Membrane Proteins Interact with Membranes Through Electrostatic Charge
Lipid-Anchored Proteins Are Covalently Linked to Hydrophobic Anchors Embedded in the Membrane
8.3 Moving Molecules Through Membranes
Membrane Transporters Are Required to Move Large and Charged Molecules Across Membranes
Transport into and out of Cells May Be Passive or Active
Transporters and Ion Channels Share Structural Properties but Have Different Mechanisms
The Glucose Transporter of Erythrocytes Mediates Passive Transport
P-Type ATPases Are Active Transporters That Change Conformation with Phosphorylation from ATP
Ion Channels Allow Rapid Movement of Ions Across Membranes
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 9 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
9.1 Nucleotides
Nucleotides Have Three Molecular Components
The Common Nucleotides Have Many Uncommon Variants
Phosphodiester Bonds Link Successive Nucleotides in Nucleic Acids
The Properties of Nucleotide Bases Affect the Three-Dimensional Structure of Nucleic Acids
9.2 Nucleic Acid Structures
DNA Is a Double Helix That Stores Genetic Information
DNA Can Occur in Different Three-Dimensional Forms
Certain DNA and RNA Sequences Adopt Unusual Structures
Messenger RNAs Code for Polypeptide Chains
Many RNAs Have More Complex Three-Dimensional Structures
9.3 Nucleic Acid Chemistry
Double-Helical DNA and RNA Can Be Denatured
Base Stacking Affects the UV Absorption Properties of DNA and RNA
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Undergo Nonenzymatic Transformations
9.4 Nucleotide Roles in Cell Energetics and Signaling
Nucleotides Carry Chemical Energy in Cells
Some Nucleotides Are Regulatory Molecules or Signals
Adenine Nucleotides Serve as Constituents of Many Enzymatic Cofactors; a Clue to the Origin of Life?
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 10 Biological Information Part 1: DNA and RNA Metabolism
10.1 DNA Replication
DNA Replication Follows a Set of Rules
DNA Polymerases Synthesize DNA
DNA Replication Requires Many Enzymes and Protein Factors
DNA Replication Occurs in Stages
10.2 DNA Repair and Organization
All Cells Have Multiple DNA Repair Systems
DNA Repair Can Also Occur in the Absence of Replication
DNA Is Organized into Chromatin
10.3 Transcription and RNA Processing
RNA Polymerases Synthesize RNA
Transcription Requires Many Enzymes and Protein Factors
RNA Synthesis Occurs in Stages
Medicines Can Target or Be Made by RNA Polymerases
Nearly All Eukaryotic RNAs Must Be Processed
Reverse Transcriptases Produce DNA from RNA
10.4 Regulation of Transcription
Transcription of Specific Genes Requires Regulatory Proteins in Addition to RNA Polymerase
Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria
Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 11 Biological Information Part 2: Protein Metabolism
11.1 The Genetic Code
The Genetic Code Describes How Sets of Nucleic Acids Correspond to Particular Amino Acids
tRNA Anticodons Base-Pair with Codons
tRNAs Are Charged with Amino Acids for Protein Synthesis
tRNA Charging Requires ATP Hydrolysis
11.2 Structure and Function of Ribosomes
Ribosomes Catalyze Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis Occurs in Stages
Translation Factors Interact with the Ribosome During Elongation and Termination
Protein Synthesis by the Ribosomes Is Energetically Expensive
11.3 Protein Folding, Modification, and Degradation
Chaperones Help Proteins Fold into Their Native Conformation
Posttranslational Modifications Are Critical for the Function of Many Proteins
Protein Degradation Is Highly Regulated in Eukaryotes by the Ubiquitin/Proteosome Pathway
11.4 Translational Control
Riboswitches, Small RNAs, and Attenuation Can Control Gene Expression in Bacteria
Eukaryotes Use mRNA Binding Proteins, RNAi, and MicroRNAs to Regulate Protein Production
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 12 Nucleic Acid Technologies
12.1 Defining Genomic Information
The Genome Is All of the Nucleic Acid Needed to Support the Life of an Organism
The Polymerase Chain Reaction Provides Targeted Amplification of Genomic Information
DNA Can Be Sequenced
Sanger Sequencing Has Been Automated
Next-Generation DNA Sequencing Produces Complete Genome Sequences
RNA Can Be Sequenced by First Converting the RNA to DNA with Reverse Transcriptase
12.2 Altering Genomic Information
Joining DNA Segments from Different Sources Yields Recombinant DNA
DNA Segments Can Be Joined Without Using Restriction Enzymes
Cloned DNA Can Be Altered to Study Genes and Proteins
CRISPR/Cas Systems Allow Targeted Cleavage or Modification of Genomic Information
12.3 Using Genomic Information
An Altered Genome Can Lead to an Altered Transcriptome and Proteome
Genomic Information Can Be Used to Identify the Source of Genetic Diseases
Genomic Information Can Be Used to Investigate Crimes
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 13 Introduction to Intermediary Metabolism
13.1 What Is Metabolism?
Molecules Are Metabolized by Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways
Metabolic Pathways Can Be Converging, Diverging, or Cyclic
13.2 Common Enzyme Reactions in Metabolism
Carbonyls Are Important for Making and Breaking Carbon–Carbon Bonds
Rearrangement and Isomerization Reactions Reposition Reactive Groups
Elimination Reactions Release Good Leaving Groups
Free-Radical Reactions Involve Complex Rearrangements
Group Transfer Reactions Add or Subtract Functional Groups to Metabolites
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve Electron Transfer to or from Biomolecules
13.3 ATP and Phosphoryl Group Transfers
ATP Contains Phosphoanhydride Bonds
ATP Hydrolysis Is Thermodynamically Very Favorable
Many Other Metabolites and Enzyme Reaction Intermediates Also Have Large, Negative Free Energies of Hydrolysis
ATP Donates Phosphoryl, Pyrophosphoryl, and Adenylyl Groups
ATP Can Provide Energy by Group Transfers, Not Just by Hydrolysis
13.4 Biological Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Can Be Described as Half-Reactions
Biological Oxidations Often Involve Dehydrogenation
A Few Types of Coenzymes and Proteins Serve as Universal Electron Carriers
13.5 Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
Cells and Organisms Maintain a Dynamic Steady State
Both the Amount and the Catalytic Activity of an Enzyme Can Be Regulated
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 14 Carbohydrate Metabolism Part 1: Glycolysis and Glycogen Synthesis
14.1 An Overview of Glycolysis
Glycolysis Has Two Phases: The Preparatory and Payoff Phases
In Glycolysis, the Potential Energy of Glucose Is Partially Converted to ATP and NADH
Phosphorylated Intermediates Are Important in Glycolysis
14.2 The Preparatory and Payoff Phases of Glycolysis
The Preparatory Phase of Glycolysis Converts Glucose to a Three-Carbon Metabolite and Consumes ATP
The Payoff Phase of Glycolysis Yields ATP, NADH, and Pyruvate
The Glycolytic Pathway Conserves Part of the Energy Released as ATP and NADH
Feeder Pathways Provide Additional Fuel for Glycolysis
14.3 Fermentation of Pyruvate
There Are Two Anaerobic Fermentation Pathways
The Warburg Effect Describes How Cancer Cells Rely Almost Entirely on Glycolysis for Energy
14.4 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Generates NADPH and Essential Pentose Phosphates
The Oxidative Phase Produces NADPH and Pentose Phosphates
The Nonoxidative Phase Recycles Pentose Phosphates to Glucose 6-Phosphate, Fructose 6-Phosphate, and Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
NADPH Produced by the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Defends Cells from Reactive Oxygen Species
Deficiencies in the Oxidative Phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Have Serious Health Consequences
14.5 Glycogen Synthesis
Glycogen Provides a Specialized Molecular Structure for Glucose Storage
The Sugar Nucleotide UDP-Glucose Donates Glucose for Glycogen Synthesis
Defects in Glycogen Synthesis Have Important Medical Consequences
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 15 Carbohydrate Metabolism Part 2: Gluconeogenesis and Glycogen Degradation
15.1 Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis Share Many but Not All Steps and Enzymes
Glycolytic Enzymes Are Bypassed at Three Steps in Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis Is Energetically Expensive and Essential
15.2 Coordinated Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
Hexokinase Isozymes Are Affected Differently by Their Product, Glucose 6-Phosphate
Phosphofructokinase-1 and Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphatase-1 Are Reciprocally Regulated
Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate Is a Potent Allosteric Regulator of PFK-1 and FBPase-1
15.3 Breakdown of Glycogen and Its Regulation
Glycogen Breakdown Is Catalyzed by Glycogen Phosphorylase
Glycogen Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Hormone-Stimulated Phosphorylation and by Allosteric Effectors
Allosteric and Hormonal Signals Coordinate Carbohydrate Metabolism Throughout the Body
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 16 Pyruvate Oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle
16.1 Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA
The Citric Acid Cycle Occurs in Mitochondria
Pyruvate Is Oxidized by Pyruvate Dehydrogenase to Generate Acetyl-CoA, NADH, and CO2
The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Promotes a Multistage Reaction Sequence
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Is Subject to Regulation
16.2 The Citric Acid Cycle
Citrate, the First Tricarboxylic Acid, Forms in Step 1
A Citrate Hydroxyl Group Moves in Step 2
Following the Formation of Isocitrate, Two Oxidative Decarboxylations That Form CO2 Occur with Different Mechanisms
Succinyl-CoA Synthetase Promotes the Formation of Succinate and GTP in Step 5
The Final Three Steps Convert Succinate to Oxaloacetate via a Common Oxidative Path
The Energy of Oxidation Is Conserved in the Citric Acid Cycle
The Concentration of Key Metabolites Regulates Flux Through the Citric Acid Cycle
16.3 The Citric Acid Cycle as a Metabolic Hub
The Citric Acid Cycle Plays a Central Role in Catabolism and Anabolism
A Variety of Reactions Replenish Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates or Supplement Cycle Products
16.4 The Citric Acid Cycle Affects Cell State and Disease State
Changes in Cell State Can Be Accompanied by Flux Through a Noncanonical Citric Acid Cycle
Vitamin Deficiencies Result in Disease
Amino Acid Substitutions in Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Facilitate Tumor Growth
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 17 Lipid Catabolism and Anabolism
17.1 The Fed State: Digestion, Synthesis, and Storage of Fats
Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids Requires Two Enzyme Complexes
Fatty Acid Synthesis Is Tightly Regulated
Free Fatty Acids Are Incorporated into Glycerolipids
Triacylglycerol Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Hormones
17.2 Synthesis and Transport of Cholesterol
Cholesterol Is Made from Acetyl-CoA in Four Stages
Cholesterol Has Several Fates
Cholesterol and Other Lipids Are Carried as Lipoprotein Particles
HDL and LDL Cholesterol Enter Cells Through Receptor-Mediated Interactions
Dysregulation of Cholesterol Can Lead to Cardiovascular Disease
17.3 The Fasted State: Fatty Acid Oxidation and Production of Ketone Bodies
Lipid Catabolism Occurs in Fasted States
Fatty Acid Oxidation Occurs in the Mitochondria
Fatty Acid Oxidation Is Regulated by Compartmentalization
Ketone Bodies Are Formed in the Liver and Exported to Other Tissues
Ketone Bodies Are Overproduced in Diabetes and Starvation
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 18 Amino Acid Catabolism and Anabolism
18.1 The Worldwide Nitrogen Web and Its Many Interfaces with Living Systems
A Global Nitrogen Web Makes Atmospheric Nitrogen Available to Cells
Nitrogen Is Converted to Ammonia by Enzymes of the Nitrogenase Complex
Ammonia Is Incorporated into Biomolecules Through Glutamate and Glutamine
Amino Groups Are Distributed Primarily via Transamination Facilitated by Pyridoxal Phosphate
Ammonia Generated by Some Cellular Processes Is Toxic to Animals
A Few Amino Acids Play Special Roles in Nitrogen Metabolism
18.2 Disposal of Amino Groups via the Urea Cycle
In Extrahepatic Tissues, Amino Groups Are Incorporated into Glutamine for Transport to the Liver
The Urea Cycle Disposes of Excess Amino Groups
Connections Among Metabolic Pathways Reduce the Energetic Cost of Urea Synthesis
18.3 Amino Acid Catabolism and Anabolism
Amino Acid Catabolism Produces Pyruvate, Acetyl-CoA, and Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates
Several Enzyme Cofactors Play Important Roles in Amino Acid Catabolism
Some Genetic Deficiency Diseases Are Linked to Amino Acid Catabolism
Amino Acid Anabolism Is Often Not the Reverse of Amino Acid Catabolism
Organisms Vary Greatly in Their Ability to Synthesize the 20 Common Amino Acids
α-Ketoglutarate Gives Rise to Glutamate, Glutamine, Proline, and Arginine
18.4 Molecules Derived from Amino Acids
Heme Is Derived from Glycine and Succinyl-CoA
Biological Amines Are Products of Amino Acid Decarboxylation
Glutathione Is Synthesized from Glutamate, Cysteine, and Glycine
18.5 Nucleotide Biosynthesis
The Ribose in Nucleotides Is Derived from Phosphoribosyl Pyrophosphate
Pyrimidine Nucleotides Are Made from Aspartate, PRPP, and Carbamoyl Phosphate
De Novo Purine Nucleotide Synthesis Begins with PRPP
Ribonucleotides Are the Precursors of Deoxyribonucleotides
Thymidylate Is Derived from dCDP and dUMP
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 19 Electron Transfer and Oxidative Phosphorylation
19.1 The Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain
Chemiosmotic Theory Describes How Electron Flow Couples to ATP Synthesis in Mitochondria
Mitochondrial Architecture Facilitates Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis
Dehydrogenases Funnel Electrons to Universal Electron Acceptors
Electrons Pass Through a Series of Membrane-Bound Carriers
Electron Carriers Function in Multienzyme Complexes
The Energy of Electron Transfer Is Conserved in a Proton Gradient
Reactive Oxygen Species Are Generated During Oxidative Phosphorylation
19.2 ATP Synthesis
In the Chemiosmotic Model, Oxidation and Phosphorylation Are Obligately Coupled
ATP Synthase Has Two Functional Domains, Fo and F1
Chemiosmotic Coupling Allows Nonintegral Stoichiometries of O2 Consumption and ATP Synthesis
Shuttle Systems Indirectly Convey Cytosolic NADH into Mitochondria for Oxidation
Uncoupling the Proton Gradient from ATP Synthesis Produces Heat
19.3 Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation and Mitochondrial Disease
An Inhibitory Protein Prevents ATP Hydrolysis During Hypoxia
Hypoxia Leads to ROS Production and Several Adaptive Responses
ATP-Producing Pathways Are Regulated
Mitochondrial Enzyme Defects Cause Disease
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Chapter 20 Metabolism and Biosignaling
20.1 Hormone Structure and Action
Hormones Act Through Specific High-Affinity Cellular Receptors
Hormones Are Chemically Diverse
Hormones Regulate Glucose Levels
Diabetes Mellitus Arises from Defects in Insulin Production or Action
20.2 Tissue-Specific Metabolism
The Liver Processes and Distributes Nutrients in the Fed State
The Liver Produces Ketone Bodies to Fuel Peripheral Tissues in Fasting
Adipose Tissue Stores and Supplies Fatty Acids
Muscle Uses ATP for Mechanical Work
20.3 Hormonal Regulation of Satiety and Body Weight
Body Weight Is Tightly Regulated by Hormones
Adipose Tissue Produces Multiple Adipokines to Regulate Metabolism
The Digestive System Regulates Satiety
End of Chapter
Key Terms
Appendix A Self-Check Answers
Appendix B Section Review Questions and Answers
Appendix C Chapter Review Questions and Answers
Glossary
Notes
Index
Extended Descriptions
Cover page
Principles of protein structure, self-check questions, and learning goals
Protein folding forces and term matching
TABLE 1.1 Productive Paths to Scientific Knowledge
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin's work
Protein misfolding and amyloid fibril formation
Two conventions for numbering carbons
Complex buffer titration problem solving
Lipopolysaccharides as bacterial surface
Diabetes diagnosis using H b A 1 c
e-book page on globular proteins, discussing their compact structure, and varied functions
Study guide section on amino acids, an amino acid structure diagram, and a quiz matching amino acid codes
Self-evaluation
Titration graph, solution steps, and explanation
An interactive question
Case study topics covering biomolecules and signal transduction
Transcription initiation and elongation in E.coli
Mechanism of the interaction of acetaldehyde with a molecule
Two overlapping windows
Phylogeny of the three domains of life. A “family tree” of this type illustrates evolutionary relationships
Common features of bacterial cells and eukaryotic cells
Bacterial cell features
Eukaryotic cell features
Supramolecular structures in cells
Common model organisms in biochemistry
Biological information transfer from D N A to protein
Elements essential to life
Atomic bonding patterns and bond cleavage types
Geometry of carbon bonding
Common functional groups in biochemistry
Multiple functional groups often occur together in biochemical molecules
The major molecular components of a living cell
Comparison between nucleophiles and electrophiles
Structure of phenylacetate
Reaction coordinate diagram
Free energy versus reaction coordinate
Light-driven reduction of carbon dioxide
Energy yielding oxidation of glucose
Adenosine triphosphate (A T P) provides energy
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules
Bonding within and between water molecules
Ice cube with the arrangement of the ball-and-stick models of water molecules
Hydrogen bonds between different molecules
Strong and weak hydrogen bond
Four pairs of hydrogen acceptors and hydrogen donors
Chemical structures of 5 polar, 1 nonpolar, and 2 amphipathic biomolecules as ionic forms at p H 7
Water dissolves salts by surrounding ions and breaking up the crystal lattice
Haworth projection of glucose
Noncovalent interactions among biomolecules in aqueous solvent
Noncovalent interactions among biomolecules in aqueous solvent
Noncovalent interactions among biomolecules in aqueous solvent
Noncovalent interactions among biomolecules in aqueous solvent
Noncovalent interactions among biomolecules in aqueous solvent
Formation of hydrogen bond between the functional groups within a macromolecule
Interconversion of two water molecules with a hydronium ion and hydroxyl ion
Proton hopping from hydronium ion to water molecules
p H scale shows the p H of some aqueous fluids
Nine conjugate acid-base pairs arranged along a p H scale
Titration curve of acetic acid
Interaction of acetic acid and acetate in a buffer system
Titration curves for C H 3 C O O H, H 2 P O 4 superscript minus, and N H 4 superscript plus
Ionization of histidine
Bicarbonate buffer system in blood in capillaries and air in lungs
p H optima of pepsin and trypsin
General structure of an amino acid
Stereoisomerism in alpha-amino acids
Two ball-and-stick models of isomers of an amino acid
Structural formula of lysine
Structure of an amino acid
20 common amino acids in proteins
Absorption of ultraviolet light by aromatic amino acids
Structures of 4-hydroxyproline and gamma-carboxyglutamate
Structures of ornithine and citrulline
Effect of the loss of protons on the structure and charge of an amino acid
Nonionic and zwitterionic forms
Titration of amino acids
General structure of an amino acid
Formation of a peptide bond
Reversible formation of a disulfide bond by the oxidation of two molecules of cysteine
Structure of Alanylglutamylglycyllysine
Column chromatography
Ion-exchange chromatography
Size-exclusion and affinity chromatography methods
Electrophoresis
Levels of organization in a protein
Amino acid sequence of bovine insulin
Breaking disulfide bonds in proteins
Two examples of sequence logos
Sequence logo of a polypeptide
Figure 4.1 The four levels of protein structure
Figure 4.2 The roles of entropy and the hydrophobic effect on protein folding
Figure 4.3 The double-bond character of a peptide bond limits the possible conformations of a peptide chain
Figure 4.4 phi and psi dihedral angles in a peptide
Figure 4.5 Models of the alpha helix, showing different aspects of its structure
Figure 4.6 Left and right-handed helices
Figure 4.7 The β conformation of polypeptide chains
Figure 4.8 Ramachandran plot
Different shapes of protein depicted as ribbon structures
Figure 4.10 Structure of hair
Figure 4.11 Structure of collagen
Figure 4.12 Structure of fibroin protein
Figure 4.13 Globular protein structures are compact and varied
Figure 4.14 Tertiary structure of myoglobin
Figure 4.15 Protein structural motifs and domains
Figure 4.16 The mammalian vault protein
Figure 4.17 Protein denaturation
Figure 4.18 A protein-folding pathway for a small protein
Figure 4.19 Formation of disease-causing amyloid fibrils
Figure 4.20 Pharmacochaperones for treatment of CFTR-folding defects in cystic fibrosis
Reversible binding of a protein to a ligand
Reversible binding of a protein to a ligand via induced fit
Graphical representation of a ligand binding curve
Dissociation constants of different interactions
Binding curves of two proteins with the same ligand
Heme
Myoglobin
The heme group viewed from the side
Graphical representation of binding of oxygen to myoglobin
Effects caused by ligand binding to the heme of myoglobin
View of myoglobin showing the arrangement of key amino acid residues around the heme
Quaternary structure of deoxyhemoglobin
All globins have a similar structure
Comparison of whale myoglobin with the alpha and beta chains of human hemoglobin
The T to R transition
Changes in conformation near heme on O2 binding to deoxyhemoglobin
A sigmoid (cooperative) binding curve
Cooperative binding of oxygen to hemoglobin
Formation of carbamino-terminal residue
Effect of p H on oxygen binding to hemoglobin
Relationship between levels of C O H b in blood and concentration of C O in the surrounding air
Several oxygen-binding curves to illustrate the effects of C O binding
The effect of the sickle cell anemia mutation
Enzyme substrate-complex
Reaction coordinate diagram
Reaction coordinate diagram comparing enzyme-catalyzed and uncatalyzed reactions
Reaction coordinate diagram
Uncatalyzed reaction
An enzyme active site that is complementary to the structure of the substrate
Enzyme catalyzed reaction
Interconversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
A transition state analog
General acid and base catalysis
The course of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
Effect of substrate concentration on the initial velocity of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
Dependence of initial velocity on substrate concentration
Competitive inhibition
Uncompetitive inhibition
Mixed inhibition
Irreversible inhibition
Structure of chymotrypsin
Two phases of the chymotrypsin reaction
Transition state for the acylation phase of the chymotrypsin reaction
The p H dependence of chymotrypsin-catalyzed reactions
The p H-rate profile of chymotrypsin
Mechanism of action of H I V protease
H I V protease inhibitors
Transpeptidase reaction
General structures of penicillins and the inactivation of transpeptidase
Subunit interactions in an allosteric enzyme
Kinetic behavior of an allosteric enzyme
Some enzyme modification reactions
Activation of zymogens by proteolytic cleavage
Monosaccharides
Two enantiomers of glyceraldehyde
Fischer projection structures
Fischer projection structures of D-Mannose, D-Glucose, D-Galactose, and D-Fructose
Fischer projections labeled (a) to (d)
Formation of hemiacetals and hemiketals
Formation of the two cyclic forms of d-glucose
Structure of alpha and beta anomers in aldohexose and ketohexose
Structures of different pyranoses and furanoses
Fisher projection of D-glucose and Haworth perspective of alpha-D-glucopyranose
Fischer projection structures of D-mannose and D-galactose
Chair structures of Greek letter alpha-D-Glucopyranose and Greek letter beta-D-Glucopyranose
Four sugars labeled (a) to (d) as part of a question
Four sugars labeled (a) to (d) as part of a question
Formation of maltose
Two common disaccharides
Disaccharide
Homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides
Helical structure of starch or glycogen
Starch and glycogen
Chemical structure and structural model of cellulose chains
Repeating units of some common glycosaminoglycans of extracellular matrix
Structures of alpha-L-Iduronate (I lowercase D O uppercase A) and beta D-glucuronate (G lowercase L C uppercase A)
Repeating units of four common glycosaminoglycans
The structure of peptidoglycan
Two families of membrane proteoglycans
Proteoglycan aggregate of the extracellular matrix
Interactions between cells and the extracellular matrix
Oligosaccharide linkages in glycoproteins
Bacterial lipopolysaccharide
Role of lectin-ligand interactions in leukocyte movement to the site of an infection or injury
Role of oligosaccharides in recognition events at the cell surface and in the endomembrane system
Fatty acid structure and packing
Eicosapentaenoic acid (E P A)
Fatty acid composition of commonly used dietary oils
Three major classes of membrane lipids
The three membrane lipid backbones
Diversity of glycerophospholipid head groups
Structures of a micelle and lipid bilayer with close-ups of the units in the micelle and bilayer
Lipid composition of cellular organelles
Two extreme states of bilayer lipids
Membrane proteins can be integral, peripheral, or lipid-anchored
Fluid mosaic model
Integral membrane protein aquaporin
Lipid-anchored membrane proteins
Sequence from 151 to 175
Membrane permeability of small molecules
Transportation of charged and uncharged molecules
Summary of transport types
Three general classes of transport systems
the diffusion of Polar hydrated substates across a membrane bilayer
The difference between transporters and ion channels
Role of N a superscript plus K superscript plus A T P ase in animal cells
Ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels
Formation of nucleotides from individual components followed by the formation of D N A and R N A
General structure of a nucleotide and basic structure of a purine and a pyrimidine
Structures of purine bases like adenine and guanine and the pyrimidine bases like cytosine, thymine, and uracil
Structure of uracil
Nucleosides and symbols for four deoxyribonucleotides and four ribonucleotides
Structures of the minor purine found in D N A and R N A and additional minor bases found in R N A
Structure of a nucleoside
Structure of four adenosine monophosphates
Guanosine pentaphosphate
Phosphodiester linkages in the covalent backbones of D N A and R N A
Hydrolysis of R N A
Absorption spectra of common nucleotides
Three-nucleotide segment of R N A
hydrogen-bonding in double stranded D N A
Structure of D N A double helix
Complementary base pairing in a vertical double helix of D N A
A, B, and Z forms of D N A
Hairpins and cruciform
Chemical structure and stick model of G quadruplex
Monocistronic and polycistronic bacterial m R N A
Common secondary structures of R N A and R N A hairpin double helix
Three-dimensional structure of phenylalanine t R N A with unusual base-pairing, a hammerhead ribozyme, and an m R N A intron
Denaturation and annealing
Melting curves of two D N A specimens and the relationship between the t subscript lowercase m and the G plus C content of D N A
Deamination of cytosine, 5-methylcytosine, adenine, and guanine
Removal of guanine from a guanosine residue in D N A
Formation of thymine dimer in presence of U V light
Different types of nucleoside phosphates
A T P, acetic anhydride, and methyl acetate
Tyrosine residue modified by an adenylyl group
Regulatory nucleotides
Structures of adenine nucleotides or nucleosides
Structure of adenine with five constituent H C N molecules highlighted inside ovals
Replication of a circular double-stranded D N A molecule
D N A strands at a replication fork of a linear D N A molecule
D N A polymerase reaction
Base-pair geometry in case of correct base pairs and incorrect base pairs
Greatly simplified depiction of E. coli replisome
D N A replication initiation, elongation, and termination in bacteria
Steps in lagging strand synthesis
Synthesis of lagging strand segments
Methyl-directed mismatch repair in E. coli
Base-excision repair pathway for D N A repair
Nucleotide-excision repair pathway in E. coli
Schematic and microscopic view of nucleosomes
D N A wrapped around a histone core
Transcription by R N A polymerase in italicized E. coli end italics
Sequence of D N A nontemplate strand, D N A template strand, and R N A transcript
Sigma superscript 70 R N A polymerase holoenzyme of E. coli
Transcription initiation and elongation in E.coli
Rho-independent termination and rho-dependent termination
Structure of rifampin and x-ray crystallographic structure of rifampin bound to R N A polymerase of the pathogen italicized M. tuberculosis end italics
Formation of the primary transcript and its processing during the maturation of m R N A in a eukaryotic cell
Processing of a eukaryotic m R N A
Alternative splicing of m R N A
Reverse transcription of m R N A
Effect of activators and repressors on gene expression
Positive and negative regulation of initiation of transcription
Representative bacterial operon with three genes
lac operon induction
Nuclear envelope, heterochromatin, and euchromatin
Overlapping versus nonoverlapping genetic codes
Reading frames in the genetic code
A codon table for the standard genetic code
Pairing relationship of codon and anticodon
Structures of t R N A
Aminoacylation of t R N A by aminoacyl-t R N A synthetases
Ribosomes
Stages of translation
Formation of the initiation complex in bacteria
First elongation step in protein synthesis
Second elongation step in bacteria: formation of the first peptide bond
Third elongation step in bacteria
Termination of protein synthesis in bacteria
Schematic of a ricin umbrella gun
Chaperonins in protein folding
Reactions carried out by chaperone isomerases during protein folding
Some modified amino acid residues
Farnesylation of a cysteine residue
Metallochaperone C C S in complex with S O D 1
Structure of ubiquitin
Biochemistry of protein ubiquitination
Three-dimensional structure of the eukaryotic proteasome
Posttranscriptional gene regulation in bacteria
R N A silencing in petunias
Gene regulation by micro-R N As in animals
Eukaryotic m R N As
A snapshot of a bacterial genome
A snapshot of the human genome
The components of the P C R process
Amplification of a D N A segment by the polymerase chain reaction (P C R)
D N A sequencing by the Sanger method
Structure of a dideoxynucleotide
Automation of Sanger D N A sequencing reactions
Next-generation reversible terminator sequencing: the flow cell
Next-generation reversible terminator sequencing: nucleotides and chemistry
Next-generation reversible terminator sequencing: recording results
Sequence assembly
R N A-Sequencing method
Elements of a plasmid
Use of restriction endonucleases in cloning
Gibson assembly joins two D N As
Protein fusions used for protein purification
Green fluorescent protein (G F P)
The C R I S P R slash Cas9 system for genomic engineering
C R I S P R-based treatment of Victoria Gray
Proteomic changes due to evolution of antibiotic resistance
Linkage analysis in the discovery of disease genes
Using P C R to solve crimes
S T R sequences
Cycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the autotrophic (photosynthetic) and heterotrophic domains in the biosphere
Energy relationships between catabolic and anabolic pathways
Three types of nonlinear metabolic pathways
Overview of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism.
Condensation and decarboxylation reactions
Isomerization reactions
An elimination reaction
A free radical–initiated decarboxylation reaction
A group transfer reaction
Group transfer by hexokinase
Oxidation levels of carbon in common biomolecules.
An oxidation-reduction reaction
Chemical structure of A T P
Chemical basis for the large free energy change associated with A T P hydrolysis
Hydrolysis of phosphoenolpyruvate (P E P)
Hydrolysis of acetyl-coenzyme A.
A T P can be attacked by nucleophiles at three separate positions
A T P produces reactive intermediates
N A D (P) as a redox cofactor
F A D and F M N as redox cofactors
The E. coli metabolome
Factors affecting the activity of enzymes
Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation
Glycolysis, fermentation, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen synthesis
An overview of glycolysis
Preparatory phase of glycolysis
Payoff phase of glycolysis.
Glycolysis
Figure 14.3 The chemical reactions of the preparatory phase of glycolysis
Preparatory phase of glycolysis
Structure of sedoheptulose-7-phosphate
Chemical reactions in the payoff phase of glycolysis
Pay off phase of glycolysis
Enzymatic reaction mechanism of enolase, where 2-phosphoglycerate is converted into phosphoenolpyruvate
Glycolysis
Feeder pathways for glycolysis
Fermentation process
Production of N A D H in glycolysis
Ethanol fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation occurs in tissues that lack sufficient oxygen
Detection of cancerous tissue by positron emission tomography (P E T)
Pentose phosphate pathway
Overview of the pentose phosphate pathway
The oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway
Nonoxidative reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway
Reactive oxygen species
Glycogen
Glycogen granuleas in a hepatocyte
Structure of a glycogen beta-granule
Structure of U D P-glucose
Glycogen synthesis.
Glucogenesis
Many different precursors are converted into carbohydrates
An overview of gluconeogenesis
The glycolysis and glycolytic pathways share some but not all steps
Role of biotin in the pyruvate carboxylase reaction
Synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate from oxaloacetate by P E P carboxykinase
Glycolysis and glucogenesis
A futile metabolic cycle
Comparison of the kinetic properties of liver hexokinase Roman numeral 4 and hexokinase Roman numeral 1
Phosphofructokinase-1 (P F K-1) and its regulation
Regulation of P F K-1 and F B Pase-1
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate structure
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F 26 B P) has opposite effects on the enzymatic activities of P F K-1 and F B Pase-1
Figure 15.12 Regulation of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate level
Glycolysis and glucogenesis
Overview of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis and their regulation by hormones
Removal of a glucose residue from the nonreducing end of a glycogen chain by glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen breakdown near an (alpha 1 forward arrow 6) branch point
The phosphoglucomutase reaction
Regulation of muscle glycogen phosphorylase
Regulation of liver glycogen phosphorylase
Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism in the liver
Difference in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism in liver and muscle
Metabolic pathways within a mitochondrion
Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in cellular respiration
Formation of C O 2 in the citric acid cycle
The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl C o A
Overall reaction catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Coenzyme A
Reactions of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
The oxidized, reduced, and acetylated forms of lipoate
Regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase
Citric acid cycle
Citric acid cycle overview
Citric acid cycle
Formation of citrate
Citric acid cycle
Decarboxylation facilitated by a carbonyl group
Formation of isocitrate
Citric acid cycle
Citric acid cycle
Formation of succinyl-Co A
Repeating patterns in biochemistry, example 1
Citric acid cycle
Formation of succinate
Reaction sequence for succinyl-CoA synthetase
Citric acid cycle
Repeating patterns in biochemistry: example 2
Products of the citric acid cycle
Citric acid cycle: fate of the carbons of acetyl-C o A
Regulation sites in the citric acid cycle
Citric acid cycle connections with anabolic (biosynthetic) reaction pathways
Cofactors that feature long flexible molecular arms
The malate-aspartate shuttle moves reducing equivalents into the mitochondria to provide N A D H
Noncanonical citric acid cycle shuttle
Formation of alpha ketoglutarate
Lipid anabolism and catabolism
The acetyl-Co A carboxylase reaction
The synthesis of a fatty acid
Regulation of fatty acid synthesis
Biosynthesis of phosphatidic acid
Phosphatidic acid in lipid biosynthesis
Regulation of triacylglycerol storage between the adipose tissue and the liver in fed and fasted states
Cholesterol structure
Cholesterol biosynthesis
Formation of mevalonate from acetyl-Co A
Regulation of cholesterol formation balances synthesis with dietary uptake and energy state
Statins mimic the structure of mevalonate
Metabolic fates of cholesterol
Lipoprotein particles
Lipoproteins and lipid transport
Uptake of cholesterol by receptor mediated endocytosis
Formation of plaques
Mobilization of free fatty acids from triacylglycerol
Activation of a fatty acid by conversion to a fatty acyl–Co A
Fatty acid entry into the mitochondria
Stages of fatty acid oxidation
Greek letter beta oxidation pathway
Coordinated regulation of fatty acid synthesis and breakdown
Formation of ketone bodies from acetyl- Co A
Ketone body production and export from the liver
Ketones as fuel
Lipid anabolism and catabolism
Amino acid and nitrogen metabolism
Metabolic pathways
Marine dead zones
The global nitrogen web
Nitrogen fixation
Structure of gamma glutamyl phosphate
Transamination of amino acids
Pyridoxal phosphate (vitamin B 6)
Nitrogen paths from tissues to liver
Metabolic pathways
Glutamate, glutamine, and the urea cycle
Formation of L-glutamate
The reaction catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase
The urea cycle
The reaction of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase
Overview of the catabolism of carbon skeletons derived from amino acids
Cofactors important in one-carbon transfer reactions
Tetrahydrofolate (folate or B 9) in one-carbon metabolism at different oxidation states
Synthetic cycle for S-adenosylmethionine
Diseases associated with degradation of phenylalanine and tyrosine
The first two steps in the catabolism of branched-chain amino acids
Metabolic pathways
Overview of amino acid biosynthesis
Proline biosynthesis
The first few steps of arginine biosynthesis parallel those in proline biosynthesis
Metabolic pathways
Biosynthesis of heme in vertebrates
Amino acid decarboxylation catalyzed by pyridoxal phosphate
The generation of biological amines from amino acids
Biosynthesis of glutathione from amino acids
Metabolic pathways
Formation of P R P P
Synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides
Biosynthesis of purine nucleotides
Ribonucleotide reductase
Thymidylate synthesis pathway
Oxidative phosphorylation
A T P synthesis in mitochondria
Anatomy of a mitochondrion
4 Ubiquinone (Q, or coenzyme Q)
Prosthetic groups of cytochromes
Iron-sulfur protein centers
Paths of electron transfer to ubiquinone in the electron transport chain
Complex Roman numeral 1 (N A D H:ubiquinone oxidoreductase)
Complex Roman numeral 2 (succinate dehydrogenase)
Complex Roman numeral 3 of the respiratory chain (cytochrome b c subscript 1 complex or ubiquinone: cytochrome c oxidoreductase)
Cytochrome c
Complex Roman numeral 4 (cytochrome oxidase)
Electron movement through respiratory pathways
A respirasome composed of complexes Roman numeral 1, Roman numeral 2, and Roman numeral 4
R O S formation in mitochondria and mitochondrial defenses
Chemiosmotic model
Coupling of electron transfer and A T P synthesis in mitochondria
Mitochondrial ATP synthase complex
Binding-change model for A T P synthase
N A D H shuttle systems
Two mechanisms of thermogenesis in mitochondria
Structure of bovine F subscript 1 end subscript-A T Pase in a complex with its regulatory protein I F subscript 1 end subscript
Regulation of gene expression by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) to reduce ROS formation
Regulation of A T P-producing pathways
Heteroplasmy in mitochondrial genomes
Coordination and division of carbohydrate and lipid catabolism in fasting and feeding
Signaling by the neuroendocrine system
General mechanisms of hormone action
Structure of norepinephrine
Structure of oxytocin
Structure of prostaglandin
Representation of human growth hormone
Structures of testosterone and progesterone
Insulin
The endocrine system of the pancreas
Regulation of insulin secretion in β cells
Blood glucose range in humans
Specialized metabolic functions of mammalian tissues
Figure 20.9 Plasma concentrations of fatty acids, glucose, and ketone bodies during six weeks of starvation
Liver processing of circulating metabolites in the fed state
Glucose uptake in the liver is regulated by hexokinase IV
White adipocyte
Energy sources for muscle contraction
Addition of phosphocreatine and A D P
Metabolic cooperation between skeletal muscle and liver: the Cori cycle
Set point theory for maintaining body weight
Hypothalamic regulation of food intake and energy expenditure
Hormones that control eating
Adipokine regulation of numerous tissues
Production of adiponectin and its actions through A M P K
Regulation of feeding behavior by hormones produced throughout the body
Eukaryotic cell
Structure of three molecules
Five compounds
Structure of a 6-membered heterocyclic hexagonal ring
Two sets of reactants
Common functional groups in biomolecules
Free energy versus reaction coordinate
Eukaryotic cell
Bacterial cell features
Structure of three molecules
Five compounds grouped as electrophiles and nucleophiles
Structure of a 6-membered heterocyclic hexagonal ring with two structural errors
Two sets of reactants
Common functional groups in biomolecules
Energy versus reaction progress
Three ionization states of the amino acid histidine with its three ionizable functional groups
Amino acid
Structure of isoleucine
Structures of compounds labeled from a through j
Structure of a glutathione molecule
Rate versus amount of enzyme solution
Structure of three amino acids
Two representations of a signature sequence
Three ionization states of the amino acid histidine with its three ionizable functional groups
Rectangular electrophoresis gel
Rectangular electrophoresis gel
Rectangular electrophoresis gel
Tertiary structure of a protein segment
Structures of two side chains
Structures of two side chains
Ribbon diagram of a zinc metallo-beta-lactamase protein
Seven different conformations of molecules
Theta versus concentration of L.
Y versus p O 2
Five catalysts
Concentration of Y versus time
Five catalysts
Concentration of Y versus time
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Common disaccharides
Structures of sugars A and B
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Formation of a Haworth projection by cyclization
Glucose homopolymer structures
Structure of a pentasaccharide
Structure of an oligosaccharide
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Fischer projection structure of a compound
Formation of a Haworth projection by cyclization
Lipid molecule
Lipid molecule
Three lipid molecules
Section of a lipid bilayer
Section of a lipid bilayer
Section of a lipid bilayer
Section of a lipid bilayer
Section of a lipid bilayer
Membrane proteins can be integral, peripheral, or lipid-anchored
Section of a lipid bilayer
Membrane proteins can be integral, peripheral, or lipid-anchored
Structures of bases, nucleosides, or nucleotides
Structures of bases, nucleosides, or nucleotides
Structure of a compound
Structure of a compound
Structure of a compound
Structure of a dinucleotide
Process of D N A replication, highlighting the key components and their roles
Structure of a D N A double helix
Structure of 5-methylcytosine
Genetic sequence
Genetic sequence
Genetic sequence
Genetic sequence
Types of gene expression
Structure of isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactoside (I P T G)
Process of D N A replication, focusing on the leading and lagging strands at the replication fork
Formation of thymine from 5-methylcytosine
Types of gene expression
Formation of an aminoacyl-A M P product from glycine and A T P
Reaction of aminoacyl-A M P and the terminal adenylate of t R N A to produce an aminoacyl-t R N A
t R N A molecule in its cloverleaf secondary structure
Structure of a prokaryotic ribosome
Translation process within a ribosome
Enzymatic steps involved in ubiquitination, a process where ubiquitin molecules are attached to a target protein
Transcription and translation processes
Transcription and translation processes
Chemical reaction involved in nucleotide activation
Chemical reaction involved in nucleotide activation
t R N A molecule in its cloverleaf secondary structure
Structure of a prokaryotic ribosome, labeled "70 S."
Translation process within a ribosome
Enzymatic steps involved in ubiquitination, a process where ubiquitin molecules are attached to a target protein
Transcription and translation processes
Transcription and translation processes
Gel electrophoresis result with four labeled lanes (1 through 4)
Modified cytidine nucleotide triphosphate
Modified cytidine nucleotide triphosphate
Modified cytidine nucleotide triphosphate
D N A sequence
Site-specific recombination in a species of ciliated protist
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Constructed italics E. coli end italics plasmid lowercase p uppercase B uppercase R 322
Rectangular electrophoresis gel
Short tandem repeat (S T R) patterns across three loci for multiple individuals
Variable number tandem repeat (V N T R) patterns across multiple individuals
Gel electrophoresis result with four labeled lanes (1 through 4)
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two complementary D N A strands with partial sequences
Two starting materials of aldol condensation
Structure of glucose 6-phosphate and the product of its isomerization by phosphohexose isomerase, fructose 6-phosphate
Forward reaction
Irreversible reaction
Irreversible reaction
Glycolysis pathway
Biochemical process of glycogen synthesis from glucose
Glycolysis pathway
Glycolysis pathway
Pathways of gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, starting from reactant and progressing toward product in gluconeogenesis
P F K-1 activity versus concentration of A T P
Structure of pyruvate and the product of a reaction catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase, L- lactate
V subscript 0 over V subscript max over glucose concentration in millimolar
Interconnected pathways of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Pathways of gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, starting from pyruvate and progressing toward glucose in gluconeogenesis
Citric acid cycle
Structure of isocitrate
Structures of 5 compounds
Metabolic transformations labeled from (a) through (d)
Metabolic transformations labeled from (e) through (h)
Metabolic transformations labeled from (a) through (d)
Metabolic transformations labeled from (e) through (h)
Stepwise breakdown of isoleucine into propionyl-Co A and acetyl-Co A through six enzymatic steps
Stepwise breakdown of isoleucine into propionyl-Co A and acetyl-Co A through six enzymatic steps
Biosynthesis of proline from glutamate, showing a stepwise process through several intermediates
Structure of quinonoid intermediate
Structure of Schiff base intermediate (external aldimine)
Formation of glutamate and oxaloacetate by the enzyme transaminase
Biosynthesis of proline from glutamate, showing the stepwise enzymatic reactions and molecular intermediates involved
Structure of C-14 labeled orotate
Electron transport chain within the inner mitochondrial membrane, represented as an oval-shaped double membrane structure
Structures of [4- superscript 3 end superscript H] N A D H and [7- superscript 14 end superscript C] N A D H
Structures of ethylamine and phosphorylated ethanol
Structure of aspirin
Structure of urushiol
p H versus O H superscript minus equivalents
Stained S D S polyacrylamide gel showing the results of electrophoresis
Protein structure
Ramachandran plot
Ramachandran plot
Resonance structures
Binding of oxygen to fractional saturation
Fractional saturation against the p O subscript 2 in torr
p H dependence to activity in percent of maximal
Two sigmoid curves
d-glucose and d-mannose
Structure of alpha-d-glucosyl (1 to 6) d-mannosamine
Haworth structure of gentiobiose
Structure of a tetranucleotide
Structure of molecule A
Structure of molecule B
Structure of molecule C
Interaction between two nucleotides labeled d N a M-d T P T 3
Constructed plasmid labeled lowercase p uppercase S uppercase A uppercase P
Two D N A strands
Gel electrophoresis result with four labeled lanes (1 through 4)
Constructed plasmid labeled lowercase p uppercase S uppercase A uppercase P
Palmitoyl- C o A and trans-delta squared-enoyl- C o A
Structure of L-Leucine and D-Leucine
Structure of glucose and fructose
Structures of glycerol and glycerol 3-phosphate
Structures of glycylalanine, glycine, and alanine
Structures of glycerol and dihydroxyacetone
Structures of acetaldehyde and acetic acid
Structure of phosphoarginine
Reaction of Acetyl C o A
4-carbon alkane chain
3-carbon alkane chain
5-carbon alkane chain
5-carbon alkane chain
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzymatic removal of the terminal glucose residue by glycogen phosphorylase
Metabolic pathway for the conversion of [C superscript 14] bicarbonate into glucose through a series of intermediates
Metabolic pathway for the conversion of [1-C superscript 14] pyruvate into glucose through a series of intermediates
Enzymatic removal of the terminal glucose residue by glycogen phosphorylase
Metabolic pathway for the conversion of [C superscript 14] bicarbonate into glucose through a series of intermediates
Metabolic pathway for the conversion of [1-C superscript 14] pyruvate into glucose through a series of intermediates
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), showing the sequence of reactions involving acetyl-Co A and various intermediate metabolites
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), showing the sequence of reactions involving acetyl-Co A and various intermediate metabolites
Formation of oxaloacetate
Multi-enzyme complex mechanism of pyruvate dehydrogenase (P D H), which catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-Co A
Structure of a compound
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), showing the sequence of reactions involving acetyl-Co A and various intermediate metabolites
2 minus H superscript 2 Acetyl- C o A
Oxygen concentration versus time with N A D H and Rotenone
Oxygen concentration versus time with N A D H, Rotenone, and Succinate
Oxygen concentration versus time with N A D H, Cyanide, and Succinate
Amino acid sequences of human oxytocin and human vasopressin
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