Individual Differences and Personality

Höfundur: Michael C. Ashton (Útgáfa: 4)
Individual Differences and Personality

Kaup valmöguleikar

Individual Differences and Personality, Fourth Edition provides a comprehensive overview of research regarding what personality is and how and why it differs between people. This book begins with a description of the study of personality and then presents basic principles of personality measurement, the concept of personality traits, and the major dimensions of personality variation. Further chapters review personality change and stability, biological causal mechanisms, genetic and environmental influences, and evolutionary adaptive function.

Personality disorders are examined as are life outcomes (such as relationships, work, and health) that are predicted by personality characteristics. In addition, the book examines important individual differences beyond personality, such as mental abilities, religious beliefs, political attitudes, and sexuality. Revisions to the fourth edition include updates to all chapters and substantial new content.

For example, the developmental change chapter includes new studies of long-term stability, and the biological bases chapter includes new research about the effects of dopamine-like substances on impulse control. The genetics chapter has been heavily revised to cover recent meta-analyses and large-scale studies of the heritability of personality traits. In the chapter on the evolutionary function of personality, the discussion of sex differences is expanded to include cross-cultural variation.

The chapter on personality and life outcomes includes new coverage of rating the personality of one's hypothetical ideal partner. The chapter on mental ability has updates on brain volume and IQ and on motivation and IQ. Contains both theory and research Examines the impact of personality on life outcomes Includes new content from meta-analyses Retains chapters and organization with fully updated material Explores environmental, genetic and evolutionary perspectives Presents an accessible style that is suitable for courses on individual differences.

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Útgefandi
Elsevier S & T
ISBN
9780323859516
Print ISBN
9780323859509
Format
ePub
Útgáfa
4
Höfundar
Michael C. Ashton
Tungumál
English
Útgefið
2022-03-26
Prent takmörkun á líftíma
10

Kaflar

  • Individual Differences and Personality
  • Cover
  • Front Matter
  • INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND PERSONALITY
  • Page ii Individual Differences and Personality
  • Table of Contents
  • Copyright
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgments
  • Introduction
  • The Study of Personality
  • The Universal, the Unique, and the In-Between
  • Idiographic Versus Nomothetic Approaches
  • Outline of This Book
  • References
  • List of Illustrations
  • List of Tables
  • Chapter 1 : Basic Concepts in Psychological Measurement
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 1.1 Some Simple Statistical Ideas
  • 1.1.1 Levels of Measurement
  • 1.1.2 Standard Scores
  • 1.1.3 Correlation Coefficients
  • 1.1.4 Sample Representativeness and Sample Size
  • 1.2 Assessing Quality of Measurement: Reliability and Validity
  • 1.2.1 Reliability
  • 1.2.1.1 Internal-Consistency Reliability
  • 1.2.1.2 Interrater (Interobserver) Reliability
  • 1.2.1.3 Test–Retest Reliability
  • 1.2.2 Validity
  • 1.2.2.1 Content Validity
  • 1.2.2.2 Construct Validity: Convergent and Discriminant
  • 1.2.2.3 Criterion Validity
  • 1.3 Methods of Measurement: Self- and Observer Reports, Direct Observations, Biodata
  • 1.3.1 Self-Reports
  • 1.3.2 Observer Reports
  • 1.3.3 Direct Observations
  • 1.3.4 Biodata (Life Outcome Data)
  • 1.3.5 Comparing the Methods of Measurement
  • 1.4 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 2 : Personality Traits and the Inventories That Measure Them
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 2.1 The Idea of a Personality Trait
  • 2.1.1 Differences Among Individuals
  • 2.1.2 In a Typical Tendency to Behave, Think, or Feel
  • 2.1.3 In Some Conceptually Related Ways
  • 2.1.4 Across a Variety of Relevant Situations
  • 2.1.5 Over Some Fairly Long Period of Time
  • 2.2 Personality Traits and Other Psychological Characteristics
  • 2.3 Do Personality Traits Exist?
  • 2.3.1 Research Studies Testing the Existence of Traits
  • 2.4 Measuring Traits by Self- or Observer Report: Structured Personality Inventories
  • 2.5 Strategies of Personality Inventory Construction
  • 2.5.1 The Empirical Strategy
  • 2.5.2 The Factor-Analytic Strategy
  • 2.5.3 The Rational Strategy
  • 2.5.4 Comparisons of the Three Strategies
  • 2.6 Self- and Observer Reports on Personality Inventory Scales
  • The California Psychological Inventory
  • The Hogan Personality Inventory
  • The 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire
  • The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and Eysenck Personality Profiler
  • The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
  • The Temperament and Character Inventory
  • The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire
  • The Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire (ZKA-PQ)
  • The Jackson Personality Inventory—Revised and Personality Research Form
  • The Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire
  • The NEO Personality Inventory Revised and NEO Five-Factor Inventory
  • The Big Five Inventory
  • The Big Five Aspect Scales
  • The HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised
  • The International Personality Item Pool
  • 2.6.1 Agreement Between Self- and Observer Reports
  • 2.6.2 Why Do Self- and Observer Reports Tend to Agree?
  • 2.6.3 The Validity of Self- and Observer Reports in Predicting Behavior
  • 2.6.4 Biases in Self- and Observer Reports
  • 2.7 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 3 : Personality Structure Classifying Traits
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 3.1 Which Traits to Measure? Completeness Without Redundancy
  • 3.2 A Gentle Introduction to Factor Analysis
  • 3.3 Factor Analysis of Personality Traits: How to Find a Representative Set of Traits?
  • 3.3.1 The Idea of the Lexical Approach
  • 3.3.2 The Early Use of the Lexical Approach
  • 3.4 Lexical Studies in the English Language: The Big Five Personality Factors
  • 3.4.1 The Big Five
  • 3.4.2 Personality Inventories and the Five-Factor Model
  • 3.5 Lexical Studies in Many Languages: The HEXACO Personality Factors
  • 3.5.1 Different Languages, Same Six Factors
  • 3.5.2 The HEXACO Model of Personality Structure
  • 3.6 What It All Means: A Few Dimensions, But Many Personalities
  • 3.7 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 4 : Developmental Change and Stability of Personality
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 4.1 Defining Change and Stability
  • 4.2 Developmental Changes in Mean Levels of Personality Traits
  • 4.2.1 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies
  • 4.2.2 Findings About Age Trends in Personality Trait Levels
  • 4.2.2.1 Honesty–Humility
  • 4.2.2.2 Emotionality
  • 4.2.2.3 Extraversion
  • 4.2.2.4 Agreeableness
  • 4.2.2.5 Conscientiousness
  • 4.2.2.6 Openness to Experience
  • 4.2.2.7 Summary
  • 4.2.3 Why Do Average Personality Trait Levels Change as People Get Older?
  • 4.3 Stability of Traits Across the Years (and the Life Span)
  • 4.3.1 Stability Across a Period of Several Years During Adulthood
  • 4.3.2 Stability Across Longer Periods of Time During Adulthood
  • 4.3.3 Stability During Adolescence and Young Adulthood
  • 4.4 Personality in Childhood and Infancy: Measurement and Structure
  • 4.4.1 Personality Structure During Childhood
  • 4.4.2 Developmental Change in Personality Traits During Childhood
  • 4.4.3 Stability of Traits During Childhood
  • 4.4.4 Stability of Traits Between Childhood and Adulthood
  • 4.5 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 5 : Biological Bases of Personality
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 5.1 Early Ideas: The Four “Humors” and Personality
  • 5.2 Neurotransmitters
  • 5.2.1 Cloninger's Theory
  • 5.2.1.1 Dopamine and Novelty Seeking
  • 5.2.1.2 Serotonin and Harm Avoidance
  • 5.2.1.3 Norepinephrine and Reward Dependence
  • 5.2.1.4 Empirical Tests of Cloninger's Theory
  • 5.3 Brain Structures
  • 5.3.1 Gray's Theory
  • 5.3.1.1 The Behavioral Activation System
  • 5.3.1.2 The Behavioral Inhibition System
  • 5.3.1.3 The Fight-Flight-Freeze System
  • 5.3.2 Eysenck's Theory
  • 5.3.2.1 Extraversion
  • 5.3.2.2 Neuroticism
  • 5.3.2.3 Psychoticism
  • 5.3.3 Comparing Gray's and Eysenck's Dimensions
  • 5.3.4 Empirical Evidence and the Theories of Gray and Eysenck
  • 5.3.5 Zuckerman's Model
  • 5.4 Hormones
  • 5.4.1 Testosterone
  • 5.4.2 Cortisol
  • 5.4.3 Oxytocin
  • Blood Type
  • Handwriting Style
  • Astrological Sign
  • 5.5 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 6 : Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 6.1 The Question: Nature Versus Nurture
  • 6.2 Examining the Similarity of Relatives
  • 6.3 Separating Heredity and Environment
  • 6.3.1 Examining the Similarity of Identical Twins Raised Apart
  • 6.3.2 Examining the Similarity of Other Relatives Raised Apart
  • 6.3.3 Comparing the Similarities Between Identical Twins and Between Fraternal Twins
  • 6.3.4 Additive and Nonadditive Genetic Influences
  • 6.3.5 Common (Shared) Environment Influences
  • 6.3.6 Unique (Nonshared) Environment Influences
  • 6.4 The Answers
  • 6.4.1 Results From Comparisons of the Similarities Between Identical Twins and Between Fraternal Twins
  • 6.4.2 Results From Studies of the Similarity Between Other Relatives
  • 6.4.3 Summary of Findings So Far
  • 6.5 Assumptions Underlying Heritability Studies in General
  • 6.5.1 Are Relatives' Personalities Really Measured Independently?
  • 6.5.2 Is There Really No Assortative Mating for Personality?
  • 6.6 Assumptions Underlying Twin-Based Heritability Studies in Particular
  • 6.6.1 Are Twins' Early Environments Really Separate?
  • 6.6.2 Are Twins' Adoptive Households Really Very Different?
  • 6.6.3 Are Identical Twins Really Treated Differently by Others?
  • 6.7 Effects of the Unique Environment on Personality? Parental Treatment, Peer Groups, and Birth Order
  • 6.7.1 Parental Treatment and Peer Groups
  • 6.7.2 Birth Order
  • 6.8 Summary and Conclusions
  • 6.9 Appendix: Difficulties in Separating the Effects of Heredity and Environment
  • 6.9.1 Genotype–Environment Interactions
  • 6.9.2 Genotype–Environment Correlations: Passive, Reactive, and Active
  • References
  • Chapter 7 : The Evolutionary Function of Personality
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 7.1 The Idea of Evolution by Natural Selection
  • 7.2 Why Are We Not All the Same? Fluctuating Optimum and Frequency Dependence
  • 7.2.1 Several Reasons Why Variation Does Not Go Away
  • 7.2.2 Fluctuating Optimum: Ideal Levels of a Characteristic Vary Across Places and Times
  • 7.2.3 Frequency Dependence: The Advantages of Doing What Others Are Not Doing
  • 7.2.4 “Personality” Variation in Nonhuman Animals: Examples of Fluctuating Optimum Levels and Frequency-Dependent Selection
  • 7.2.5 The Operation of the Fluctuating Optimum and Frequency Dependence: Genetic and Developmental Routes
  • 7.3 Adaptive Trade-offs Between High and Low Levels of the HEXACO Personality Factors
  • 7.3.1 Honesty–Humility
  • 7.3.2 Agreeableness
  • 7.3.3 Emotionality
  • 7.3.4 Summary for Honesty–Humility, Agreeableness, and Emotionality: Altruism Versus Aggression
  • 7.3.5 Extraversion
  • 7.3.6 Conscientiousness
  • 7.3.7 Openness to Experience
  • 7.3.8 Summary for Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience: Engagement in Areas of Endeavor
  • 7.4 Cross-Generational and Cross-National Differences in Mean Levels of Personality Traits
  • 7.5 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 8 : Personality Disorders
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 8.1 The Idea of a Personality Disorder
  • 8.2 The DSM-5 Personality Disorders
  • 8.2.1 Schizoid
  • 8.2.2 Schizotypal
  • 8.2.3 Paranoid
  • 8.2.4 Antisocial
  • 8.2.5 Borderline
  • 8.2.6 Histrionic
  • 8.2.7 Narcissistic
  • 8.2.8 Avoidant
  • 8.2.9 Dependent
  • 8.2.10 Obsessive Compulsive
  • 8.2.11 Classifying the DSM-5 Personality Disorders: Clusters A, B, and C
  • 8.2.12 Problems With the DSM-5 Personality Disorders
  • 8.3 An Alternative System for Personality Disorders
  • 8.3.1 Impaired Personality Functioning
  • 8.3.1.1 “Self” Problems (Identity and Self-Direction)
  • 8.3.1.2 Interpersonal Problems (Empathy and Intimacy)
  • 8.3.2 Pathological Personality Traits
  • 8.3.3 Diagnosing Personality Disorders in the Proposed New System
  • 8.4 Origins of Personality Disorders: Developmental Change and Stability, Biological Bases, Heredity and Environment, and Evolutionary Function
  • 8.5 Treatment of Personality Disorders
  • 8.5.1 Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
  • 8.5.2 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
  • 8.5.3 Dialectical Behavior Therapy
  • 8.5.4 Psychobiological Treatments
  • 8.5.5 Treatment of Antisocial Personality Disorder
  • 8.6 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 9 : Personality and Life Outcomes
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 9.1 Does Personality Matter in Life?
  • 9.2 Relationships and Marriage
  • 9.2.1 Are Spouses Similar in Personality?
  • 9.2.2 Marital Satisfaction
  • 9.3 Friendships and Other Peer Relationships
  • 9.3.1 Are Friends Similar in Personality?
  • 9.3.2 Personality and Other Peer Relationships
  • 9.4 Health-Related Outcomes
  • 9.4.1 Longevity
  • 9.4.2 Substance Use
  • 9.4.3 Heart Disease (and “Type A” Personality)
  • 9.5 Academic Performance
  • 9.6 Job Performance
  • 9.6.1 How to Assess Job Performance?
  • 9.6.2 The Role of Conscientiousness
  • 9.6.3 Integrity Tests
  • 9.6.4 The Problem of Faking
  • 9.7 Law-Abidingness Versus Criminality
  • 9.7.1 The Role of Self-control
  • 9.7.2 Psychopathy
  • 9.8 Life Satisfaction
  • 9.9 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 10 : Mental Ability
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 10.1 The Domain of Mental Ability
  • 10.2 The Structure of Mental Ability: One Dimension or Many?
  • 10.2.1 Spearman and the g Factor
  • 10.2.2 Group Factors
  • 10.2.3 Thurstone and Several Primary Factors
  • 10.2.4 Conclusions About the Structure of Mental Abilities
  • 10.3 Developmental Change and Stability in Mental Ability
  • 10.3.1 Developmental Changes in Mean Levels of Mental Ability
  • 10.3.2 Stability of Mental Ability Across the Life Span
  • 10.4 Biological Correlates of Mental Ability
  • 10.4.1 Brain Size
  • 10.4.2 Reaction Time
  • 10.4.3 Inspection Time
  • 10.4.4 Other Biological Correlates
  • 10.5 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Mental Ability
  • 10.5.1 Genetic Influences
  • 10.5.2 Womb Environment Influences
  • 10.5.3 Nutrition
  • 10.5.4 Birth Order
  • 10.6 Evolutionary Function of Mental Ability
  • 10.7 Mental Ability and Life Outcomes
  • 10.7.1 Academic Achievement and Performance
  • 10.7.2 Job Performance, Occupational Status, and Income
  • 10.7.3 Longevity and Health
  • 10.7.4 Law-Abidingness Versus Criminality
  • 10.7.5 Marriage: Assortative Mating
  • 10.8 Not All g -Loaded Tasks Are the Same
  • 10.8.1 Novel Versus Familiar Tasks: Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
  • 10.8.2 Generational Changes in Mental Abilities: The Flynn Effect
  • 10.8.3 The Flynn Effect: Are People Really Getting Smarter?
  • 10.8.4 Reasoning With Numbers and Shapes Versus Understanding Verbal Concepts: Different Relations With Personality
  • 10.9 Alternative Ideas About Mental Ability
  • 10.9.1 Gardner's “Theory of Multiple Intelligences”
  • 10.9.2 Sternberg's “Triarchic Theory of Intelligence”
  • 10.9.3 Emotional Intelligence
  • 10.10 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 11 : Vocational Interests
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 11.1 How Vocational Interests Are Measured
  • 11.2 Score Reports From Vocational Interest Surveys
  • 11.3 Constructing Vocational Interest Scales: Empirical and Rational Strategies
  • 11.4 Major Dimensions of Vocational Interests
  • 11.5 Vocational Interests and Personality
  • 11.6 Vocational Interests and Mental Abilities
  • 11.7 Validity of Vocational Interest Surveys
  • 11.7.1 Relations With Job Satisfaction and (Lack of) Turnover
  • 11.7.2 Relations With Job Performance
  • 11.7.3 “Congruence” (or “Fit”) of Interests: Relations With Performance and Satisfaction
  • 11.7.4 Limits to Validity
  • 11.8 Origins of Vocational Interests: Developmental Change and Stability, Genetic and Environmental Influences, Biological Bases, and Evolution
  • 11.8.1 Developmental Change and Stability of Vocational Interests
  • 11.8.2 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Vocational Interests
  • 11.8.3 Evolutionary Function of Vocational Interests
  • 11.9 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 12 : Religion and Politics
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 12.1 Religion
  • 12.1.1 Is Religiosity a Personality Characteristic?
  • 12.1.2 Religiosity and the Major Dimensions of Personality
  • 12.1.3 Religiosity and Mental Ability
  • 12.1.4 Developmental Change and Stability in Religiosity
  • 12.1.5 Religiosity and Life Outcomes
  • 12.2 Politics
  • 12.2.1 Right-Wing Authoritarianism
  • 12.2.2 Social Dominance Orientation
  • 12.2.3 Relations Between Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation
  • 12.2.4 Social Values
  • 12.2.5 Attitudes, Values, and Personality
  • 12.2.6 Developmental Change and Stability in Political Attitudes
  • 12.3 Origins of Religious Beliefs and Political Attitudes: Biological Bases, Genetic and Environmental Influences, and Evolutionary Function
  • 12.3.1 Biological Bases
  • 12.3.2 Genetic and Environmental Influences (and Spousal Similarity)
  • 12.3.3 Evolutionary Function
  • 12.4 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Chapter 13 : Sexuality
  • Abstract
  • Keywords
  • Contents
  • 13.1 Major Dimensions of Sexuality
  • 13.2 Sexuality and Personality
  • 13.2.1 Sexual Arousal and Personality
  • 13.2.2 Sexual Commitment and Personality
  • 13.2.3 Sexual Orientation and Personality
  • 13.3 Origins of Variation in Sexuality: Developmental Stability and Change, Genetic and Environmental Influences, Biological Bases, and Evolution
  • 13.4 Sexual Arousal
  • 13.4.1 Genetic and Environmental Influences
  • 13.4.2 Biological Bases
  • 13.4.3 Evolutionary Function
  • 13.5 Sexual Commitment (or Restricted Versus Unrestricted Sociosexuality)
  • 13.5.1 Genetic and Environmental Influences
  • 13.5.2 Biological Bases
  • 13.5.3 Evolutionary Function
  • 13.6 Sexual Orientation
  • 13.6.1 Genetic and Environmental Influences and Biological Bases
  • 13.6.1.1 Estimating the Heritability of Sexual Orientation
  • 13.6.1.2 Development of Sexual Orientation? “Exotic Becomes Erotic”
  • 13.6.1.3 Development of Sexual Orientation? Number of Older Brothers
  • 13.6.2 Evolutionary Function
  • 13.7 Summary and Conclusions
  • References
  • Conclusions
  • What We Have Learned So Far
  • We Can Describe People Meaningfully by Their Levels of Various Personality Traits
  • We Can Measure People's Personality Trait Levels Fairly Accurately Using Self- and Observer Report Personality Inventories
  • Personality Traits (and People's Personalities) Can Be Summarized in Terms of Six Broad Dimensions
  • Some Important Individual Differences—Including Some Aspects of Mental Ability, of Religiosity, and of Sexuality—Are Only Modestly Related to Personality Characteristics
  • Personality Characteristics Are Moderately Heritable, and Are Not Much Influenced by the Common Environment
  • Personality and Other Psychological Individual Differences Are Moderately Predictive of Some Important Life Outcomes
  • Personality Does Not Much Predict Which People Will Marry Each Other, But Some Other Psychological Individual Differences Do
  • What We Have Yet to Learn
  • The Biological Bases of Personality Are Not Yet Well Understood (and Neither Is the Development or Evolution of Personality)
  • The Specific Features of the Unique Environment That Influence Personality Trait Levels Are Not Yet Known
  • Final Remarks
  • GENERIC-TITLE
  • References
  • Index
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