Fundamentals of Plant Physiology

Name: Fundamentals of Plant Physiology
Price: 4490 ISK
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Author: Lincoln Taiz
ISBN: 9780197614181

Höfundur: Lincoln Taiz (Útgáfa: 2)

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Fundamentals of Plant Physiology emphasizes essential concepts, offering a concise, accessible, and focused approach to the topic while maintaining a high standard of scientific accuracy and pedagogical richness for which the Taiz franchise is renowned. Fundamentals of Plant Physiology is a concise and accessible textbook that meets the needs of undergraduate students studying plant physiology and structure/function classes.

This fundamentals version is a response to requests from educators for an up-to-date and accessible text, specifically tailored for students who may not have extensive training in organic chemistry, genetics, or molecular biology. The second edition has been updated to reflect the remarkable advancements in plant sciences. These advancements, coupled with rapid progress in molecular breeding genome editing techniques, have enabled the development of crops that can sustain various challenges, including climate change, soil degradation, and the introduction of new pathogens and pests.

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Útgefandi: Oxford University Press Academic US

ISBN: 9780197614181

Print ISBN: 9780197614167

Format: ePub

Útgáfa: 2

Höfundar: Lincoln Taiz

Tungumál: English

Útgefið: 2024-04-23

Prent takmörkun á líftíma: 100

Prent takmörkun: 2

Afritunar takmörkun: 2

Flokkar: Náttúruvísindi

Efnisflokkar: Vísindi › Jurtafræði

Kaflar

Cover Page
Title page
Copyright page
About the Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Digital Resources: to accompany Fundamentals of Plant Physiology 2e
Enhanced E-Book for the Student (ISBN 9780197614181)
For the Instructor
1 Plant and Cell Architecture
1.1 Plant Life Processes: Unifying Principles
Plant life cycles alternate between diploid and haploid generations
1.2 Overview of Plant Structure
Plant cells are surrounded by rigid cell walls
Plasmodesmata allow the free movement of molecules between cells
New cells originate in dividing tissues called meristems
1.3 Plant Tissue Types
Dermal tissues cover the surfaces of plants
Ground tissues form the bodies of plants
Vascular tissues form transport networks between different parts of the plant
1.4 Plant Cell Compartments
Biological membranes are lipid bilayers that contain proteins
Lipids
Proteins
1.5 The Plant Cytoskeleton
The plant cytoskeleton consists of microtubules and microfilaments
Actin, tubulin, and their polymers are in constant flux in the living cell
Cytoskeletal motor proteins mediate cytoplasmic streaming and directed organelle movement
1.6 The Nucleus
Gene expression involves transcription, translation, and protein processing
Posttranslational modification of proteins determines their location, activity, and longevity
1.7 The Endomembrane System
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of internal membranes
Cell wall matrix polysaccharides, secretory proteins, and glycoproteins are processed in the Golgi apparatus
The plasma membrane has specialized regions involved in membrane recycling
Vacuoles have diverse functions in plant cells
Oil bodies are lipid-storing organelles
Peroxisomes play specialized metabolic roles in leaves and seeds
1.8 Independently Dividing Semiautonomous Organelles
Plastidial and mitochondrial division are independent of nuclear division in land plants
1.9 Cell Cycle Regulation
Each phase of the cell cycle has a specific set of biochemical and cellular activities
Mitosis and cytokinesis involve both microtubules and the endomembrane system
Summary
1.1 Plant Life Processes: Unifying Principles
1.2 Overview of Plant Structure
1.3 Plant Tissue Types
1.4 Plant Cell Compartments
1.5 The Plant Cytoskeleton
1.6 The Nucleus
1.7 The Endomembrane System
1.8 Independently Dividing Semiautonomous Organelles
1.9 Cell Cycle Regulation
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
2 Water and Plant Cells
2.1 Water in Plant Life
2.2 The Structure and Properties of Water
Water is a polar molecule that forms hydrogen bonds
Water is an excellent solvent
Water has distinctive thermal properties relative to its size
Water has a high surface tension
Water has a high tensile strength
2.3 Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules by random thermal agitation
Diffusion is most effective over short distances
Osmosis describes the net movement of water across a selectively permeable barrier
2.4 Water Potential
The chemical potential of water represents the free-energy status of water
Three major factors contribute to water potential
Solutes
Pressure
Gravity
Water potentials can be measured
2.5 Water Potential of Plant Cells
Water enters the cell along a water potential gradient
Water can also leave the cell in response to a water potential gradient
Water potential and its components vary with growth conditions and location within the plant
2.6 Cell Wall and Membrane Properties
Small changes in plant cell volume cause large changes in turgor pressure
The rate at which cells gain or lose water is influenced by plasma membrane hydraulic conductivity
Aquaporins facilitate the movement of water across membranes
2.7 Plant Water Status
Physiological processes are affected by plant water status
Solute accumulation helps cells maintain turgor and volume
Summary
2.1 Water in Plant Life
2.2 The Structure and Properties of Water
2.3 Diffusion and Osmosis
2.4 Water Potential
2.5 Water Potential of Plant Cells
2.6 Cell Wall and Membrane Properties
2.7 Plant Water Status
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
3 Water Balance of Plants
3.1 Water in the Soil
Soil water potential is affected by solutes, surface tension, and gravity
Water moves through the soil by bulk flow
3.2 Water Absorption by Roots
Water moves in the root via the apoplast, symplasm, and transmembrane pathways
Solute accumulation in the xylem can generate “root pressure”
3.3 Water Transport through the Xylem
The xylem consists of two types of transport cells
Water moves through the xylem by pressure-driven bulk flow
Water movement through the xylem requires a smaller pressure gradient than movement through living cells
What pressure difference is needed to lift water 100 m to a treetop?
The cohesion–tension theory explains water transport in the xylem
Xylem transport of water in trees faces physical challenges
Plants have several mechanisms to overcome losses of xylem conductivity caused by embolism
3.4 Water Movement from the Leaf to the Atmosphere
Leaves have a large hydraulic resistance
The driving force for transpiration is the difference in water vapor concentration
Water loss is also affected by the pathway resistances
Stomatal control couples leaf transpiration to leaf photosynthesis
The cell walls of guard cells have specialized features
Changes in guard cell turgor pressure cause stomata to open and close
Internal and external signals regulate the osmotic balance of guard cells
The transpiration ratio measures the relationship between water loss and carbon gain
3.5 Overview: The Soil–Plant–Atmosphere Continuum
Summary
3.1 Water in the Soil
3.2 Water Absorption by Roots
3.3 Water Transport through the Xylem
3.4 Water Movement from the Leaf to the Atmosphere
3.5 Overview: The Soil–Plant–Atmosphere Continuum
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
4 Mineral Nutrition
4.1 Essential Nutrients, Deficiencies, and Plant Disorders
Special techniques are used in nutritional studies
Nutrient solutions can sustain rapid plant growth
Mineral deficiencies disrupt plant metabolism and function
Group 1: Deficiencies in mineral nutrients that are part of carbon compounds
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Phosphorus
Group 2: Deficiencies in mineral nutrients that are important for structural integrity
Silicon
Boron
Group 3: Deficiencies in mineral nutrients that remain in ionic form
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Chlorine
Zinc
Sodium
Group 4: Deficiencies in mineral nutrients that are involved in redox reactions
Iron
Manganese
Copper
Nickel
Molybdenum
Plant tissue analysis reveals mineral deficiencies
4.2 Treating Nutritional Deficiencies
Crop yields can be improved by the addition of fertilizers
Some mineral nutrients can be absorbed by leaves
4.3 Soil, Roots, and Microbes
Negatively charged soil particles affect the adsorption of mineral nutrients
Soil pH affects nutrient availability, soil microbes, and root growth
Excess mineral ions in the soil limit plant growth
Some plants develop extensive root systems
Root systems differ in form but are based on common structures
Different areas of the root absorb mineral ions differently
Nutrient availability influences root growth and development
Mycorrhizal symbioses facilitate nutrient uptake by roots
Nutrients move between mycorrhizal fungi and root cells
4.4 Fertilizer Production and Uses
Summary
4.1 Essential Nutrients, Deficiencies, and Plant Disorders
4.2 Treating Nutritional Deficiencies
4.3 Soil, Roots, and Microbes
4.4 Fertilizer Production and Use
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
5 Assimilation of Inorganic Nutrients
5.1 Nitrogen in the Environment
Nitrogen passes through several forms in a biogeochemical cycle
Unassimilated ammonium or nitrate may be dangerous
5.2 Nitrate Assimilation
Many factors regulate nitrate reductase
Nitrite reductase converts nitrite to ammonium
Both roots and shoots assimilate nitrate
Nitrate can be transported in both xylem and phloem
Transceptor contributes to nitrate signaling
5.3 Ammonium Assimilation
Converting ammonium to amino acids requires two enzymes
Ammonium can be assimilated via an alternative pathway
Transamination reactions transfer nitrogen
Asparagine and glutamine link carbon and nitrogen metabolism
5.4 Amino Acid Biosynthesis
5.5 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
Free-living and symbiotic bacteria fix nitrogen
Nitrogen fixation requires microanaerobic or anaerobic conditions
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation occurs in specialized structures
Establishing symbiosis requires an exchange of signals
Nod factors produced by bacteria act as signals for symbiosis
Nodule formation involves phytohormones
The nitrogenase enzyme complex fixes N2
Amides and ureides are the transported forms of nitrogen
5.6 Sulfur Assimilation
Sulfate is the form of sulfur transported into plants
Sulfate assimilation occurs mostly in leaves
Methionine is synthesized from cysteine
5.7 Phosphate Assimilation
miRNAs contribute to phosphate and sulfate signaling
5.8 Oxygen Assimilation
5.9 The Energetics of Nutrient Assimilation
Summary
5.1 Nitrogen in the Environment
5.2 Nitrate Assimilation
5.3 Ammonium Assimilation
5.4 Amino Acid Biosynthesis
5.5 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
5.6 Sulfur Assimilation
5.7 Phosphate Assimilation
5.8 Oxygen Assimilation
5.9 The Energetics of Nutrient Assimilation
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
6 Solute Transport
6.1 Passive and Active Transport
6.2 Transport of Ions across Membrane Barriers
Different diffusion rates for cations and anions produce diffusion potentials
How does membrane potential relate to ion distribution?
The Nernst equation distinguishes between active and passive transport
Proton transport is a major determinant of the membrane potential
6.3 Membrane Transport Processes
Channels enhance diffusion across membranes
Carriers bind and transport specific substances
Primary active transport requires energy
Secondary active transport is driven by ion gradients
Kinetic analyses can elucidate transport mechanisms
6.4 Membrane Transport Proteins
Transporters exist for diverse nitrogen-containing compounds
Cation transporters are diverse
Cation channels
Cation carriers
Cation function in cells
Anion transporters have been identified
Transporters for metal and metalloid ions transport essential micronutrients
Aquaporins have diverse functions
Plasma membrane H+-ATPases are highly regulated P-type ATPases
The tonoplast H+-ATPase drives solute accumulation in vacuoles
H+-pyrophosphatases and P-type H+-ATPases also pump protons at the tonoplast
6.5 Transport in Stomatal Guard Cells
Blue light induces stomatal opening
Abscisic acid and high CO2 induce stomatal closing
6.6 Ion Transport in Roots
Solutes move through both apoplast and symplasm
Ions cross both symplasm and apoplast
Xylem parenchyma cells participate in xylem loading
Summary
6.1 Passive and Active Transport
6.2 Transport of Ions across Membrane Barriers
6.3 Membrane Transport Processes
6.4 Membrane Transport Proteins
6.5 Transport in Stomatal Guard Cells
6.6 Ion Transport in Roots
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
7 Photosynthesis: The Light Reactions
7.1 Photosynthesis in Green Plants
7.2 General Concepts
Light consists of photons with characteristic energies
Absorption of photosynthetically active light changes the electronic states of chlorophylls
Photosynthetic pigments absorb the light that powers photosynthesis
7.3 Key Experiments in Understanding Photosynthesis
Action spectra relate light absorption to photosynthetic activity
Photosynthesis takes place in complexes containing light-harvesting antennas and photochemical reaction centers
The chemical reaction of photosynthesis is driven by light
Light drives the reduction of NADP+ and the formation of ATP
Oxygen-evolving organisms have two photosystems that operate in series
7.4 Organization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus
The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis
Thylakoids contain integral membrane proteins
Photosystems I and II are spatially separated in the thylakoid membrane
7.5 Organization of Light-Absorbing Antenna Systems
Antenna systems contain chlorophyll and are membrane-associated
The antenna funnels energy to the reaction center
Many antenna pigment–protein complexes have a common structural motif
7.6 Mechanisms of Electron Transport
Electrons from chlorophyll travel through the carriers organized in the Z scheme
Energy is captured when an excited chlorophyll reduces an electron acceptor molecule
The reaction center chlorophylls of the two photosystems absorb at different wavelengths
The PSII reaction center is a multi-subunit pigment–protein complex
Water is oxidized to oxygen by PSII
Pheophytin and two quinones accept electrons from PSII
Electron flow through the cytochrome b6f complex also transports protons
Plastocyanin carries electrons between the cytochrome b6f complex and photosystem I
The PSI reaction center oxidizes PC and reduces ferredoxin, which transfers electrons to NADP+
Some herbicides block photosynthetic electron flow
7.7 Proton Transport and ATP Synthesis in the Chloroplast
Cyclic electron flow augments the output of ATP to balance the chloroplast energy budget
Summary
7.1 Photosynthesis in Green Plants
7.2 General Concepts
7.3 Key Experiments in Understanding Photosynthesis
7.4 Organization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus
7.5 Organization of Light-Absorbing Antenna Systems
7.6 Mechanisms of Electron Transport
7.7 Proton Transport and ATP Synthesis in the Chloroplast
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
8 Photosynthesis: The Carbon Reactions
8.1 The Calvin–Benson Cycle
The Calvin–Benson cycle has three phases: carboxylation, reduction, and regeneration
An induction period precedes the steady state of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation
Many mechanisms regulate the Calvin–Benson cycle
Rubisco activase regulates the catalytic activity of Rubisco
Light regulates the Calvin–Benson cycle via the ferredoxin–thioredoxin system
Light-dependent ion movements modulate enzymes of the Calvin–Benson cycle
8.2 The Oxygenation Reaction of Rubisco and Photorespiration
The oxygenation of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate sets in motion photorespiration
Photorespiration is linked to the photosynthetic electron transport system
Enzymes of plant photorespiration derive from different ancestors
Photorespiration interacts with many metabolic pathways
8.3 Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms
8.4 Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms: C4 Photosynthetic Carbon Fixation
Malate and aspartate are the primary carboxylation products of the C4 cycle
Kranz-type C4 plants assimilate CO2 by the concerted action of two different types of cells
The C4 subtypes use different mechanisms to decarboxylate four-carbon acids transported to bundle sheath cells
Bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells exhibit anatomical and biochemical differences
The C4 cycle also concentrates CO2 in single cells
Light regulates the activity of key C4 enzymes
Photosynthetic assimilation of CO2 in C4 plants requires more transport processes than in C3 plants
In hot, dry climates, the C4 cycle reduces photorespiration
8.5 Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
Different mechanisms regulate C4 PEPCase and CAM PEPCase
CAM is a versatile mechanism sensitive to environmental stimuli
8.6 Accumulation and Partitioning of Photosynthates—Starch and Sucrose
Summary
8.1 The Calvin–Benson Cycle
8.2 The Oxygenation Reaction of Rubisco and Photorespiration
8.3 Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms
8.4 Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms: C4 Photosynthetic Carbon Fixation
8.5 Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
8.6 Accumulation and Partitioning of Photosynthates—Starch and Sucrose
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
9 Photosynthesis: Physiological and Ecological Considerations
9.1 Photosynthesis Is Influenced by Leaf Properties
Leaf anatomy and canopy structure optimize light absorption
Leaf angle and leaf movement can control light absorption
Leaves acclimate to sun and shade environments
9.2 Effects of Light on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf
Photosynthetic light-response curves reveal differences in leaf properties
Leaves must dissipate excess light energy as heat
The xanthophyll cycle
Chloroplast movements
Leaf movements
Absorption of too much light can lead to photoinhibition
9.3 Effects of Temperature on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf
Leaves must dissipate vast quantities of heat
There is an optimal temperature for photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is sensitive to both high and low temperatures
Photosynthetic efficiency is temperature-sensitive
9.4 Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf
Atmospheric CO2 concentration keeps rising
CO2 diffusion to the chloroplast is essential to photosynthesis
CO2 supply imposes limitations on photosynthesis
C3 versus C4 plants
CAM plants
How will photosynthesis and respiration change in the future under elevated CO2 conditions?
Summary
9.1 Photosynthesis Is Influenced by Leaf Properties
9.2 Effects of Light on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf
9.3 Effects of Temperature on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf
9.4 Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
10 Translocation in the Phloem
10.1 Patterns of Translocation: Source to Sink
10.2 Pathways of Translocation
Sugar is translocated in phloem sieve elements
Mature sieve elements are living cells specialized for translocation
Large pores in cell walls are the prominent feature of sieve elements
Companion cells aid the highly specialized sieve elements
10.3 Phloem Loading
Phloem loading can occur via the apoplast or symplasm
Apoplastic loading is characteristic of many herbaceous species
Sucrose loading in the apoplastic pathway requires metabolic energy
Phloem loading in the apoplastic pathway involves a sucrose–H+ symporter
Transfer cells are companion cells that are specialized for membrane transport
Phloem loading is symplasmic in some species
The oligomer-trapping model explains symplasmic loading in plants with intermediary-type companion cells
Phloem loading is passive in several tree species
The type of phloem loading is correlated with several significant characteristics
10.4 Long-Distance Transport: A Pressure-Driven Mechanism
Mass transfer is much faster than diffusion
The pressure-flow model is a passive mechanism for phloem transport
The pressure is osmotically generated
Some predictions of pressure flow have been confirmed, while others require further experimentation
Functional sieve plate pores appear to be open channels
Are the pressure gradients in the sieve elements sufficient to drive phloem transport in trees?
10.5 Materials Translocated in the Phloem
Sugars are translocated in a nonreducing form
Other small organic and inorganic solutes are translocated in the phloem
Phloem-mobile macromolecules often originate in companion cells
Damaged sieve elements are sealed off
10.6 Phloem Unloading and Sink-to-Source Transition
Phloem unloading and short-distance transport can occur via symplasmic or apoplastic pathways
Symplasmic unloading supplies growing vegetative sinks
Import into seeds, fruits, and storage organs often involves an apoplastic step
Apoplastic import is active and requires metabolic energy
The transition of a leaf from sink to source is gradual
10.7 Photosynthate Distribution: Allocation and Partitioning
Allocation includes storage, utilization, and transport
Source leaves regulate allocation
Various sinks partition transport sugars
Sink tissues compete for available translocated photosynthate
Sink strength depends on sink size and activity
The source adjusts over the long term to changes in the source-to-sink ratio
10.8 Transport of Signaling Molecules
Turgor pressure and chemical signals coordinate source and sink activities
Mobile RNAs function as signal molecules to regulate growth and development
Mobile proteins also function as signal molecules to regulate growth and development
Plasmodesmata function in phloem signaling
Summary
10.1 Patterns of Translocation: Source to Sink
10.2 Pathways of Translocation
10.3 Phloem Loading
10.4 Long-Distance Transport: A Pressure-Driven Mechanism
10.5 Materials Translocated in the Phloem
10.6 Phloem Unloading and Sink-to-Source Transition
10.7 Photosynthate Distribution: Allocation and Partitioning
10.8 Transport of Signaling Molecules
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
11 Respiration and Lipid Metabolism
11.1 Overview of Plant Respiration
11.2 Glycolysis
Glycolysis metabolizes carbohydrates from several sources
The energy-conserving phase of glycolysis produces pyruvate, ATP, and NADH
Plants have alternative glycolytic reactions
Fermentation regenerates the NAD+ needed for glycolytic ATP production in the absence of oxygen
11.3 The Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway
The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway produces NADPH and biosynthetic intermediates
The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway is controlled by cellular redox status
11.4 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
Mitochondria are semiautonomous organelles
Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is oxidized via the TCA cycle
The TCA cycle of plants has unique features
11.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation
The electron transport chain catalyzes a flow of electrons from NADH to O2
Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase)
Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase)
Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex)
Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase)
The electron transport chain has supplementary branches
ATP synthesis in the mitochondrion is coupled to electron transport
Transporters exchange substrates and products
Aerobic respiration yields about 60 molecules of ATP per molecule of sucrose
Plants have several mechanisms that lower the ATP yield
The alternative oxidase
The uncoupling protein
Rotenone-insensitive NAD(P)H dehydrogenases
Respiration is an integral part of a redox and biosynthesis network
Respiration is controlled at multiple levels
11.6 Respiration in Intact Plants and Tissues
Plants respire roughly half of the daily photosynthetic yield
Respiratory processes operate during photosynthesis
Different tissues and organs respire at different rates
Environmental factors alter respiration rates
Oxygen
Temperature
Carbon dioxide
11.7 Lipid Metabolism
Fats and oils store large amounts of energy
Triacylglycerols are stored in oil bodies
Polar glycerolipids are the main structural lipids in membranes
Glycerolipids are synthesized in the plastids and the ER
Lipid composition influences membrane function
Membrane lipids are precursors of important signaling compounds
Storage lipids are converted into carbohydrates in germinating seeds
Overview: lipids to sucrose
Lipase-mediated hydrolysis
Β–Oxidation of fatty acids
The glyoxylate cycle
The mitochondrial role
Summary
11.1 Overview of Plant Respiration
11.2 Glycolysis
11.3 The Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway
11.4 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
11.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation
11.6 Respiration in Intact Plants and Tissues
11.7 Lipid Metabolism
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
12 Signals and Signal Transduction
12.1 Temporal and Spatial Aspects of Signaling
12.2 Signal Perception and Amplification
Protein kinases are major signal transduction components
Kinases also function in signal amplification
Phosphatases are the “off switch” of protein phosphorylation
Other protein modifications can reconfigure cellular processes
Small-molecule second messengers rapidly amplify signals
12.3 Hormones and Plant Development
Auxin was discovered in early studies of phototropism
Gibberellins promote stem growth and were discovered in studies of the “foolish seedling disease” of rice
Cytokinins were discovered as cell division–promoting factors in tissue-culture experiments
Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that promotes fruit ripening and other developmental processes
Abscisic acid regulates seed maturation and stomatal closure in response to water stress
Brassinosteroids regulate photomorphogenesis, floral sex identity, and other developmental processes
Strigolactones suppress branching and promote rhizosphere interactions
12.4 Phytohormone Metabolism and Homeostasis
Indole-3-pyruvate is the primary intermediate in auxin biosynthesis
Gibberellins are synthesized by oxidation of the diterpene ent-kaurene
Cytokinins are adenine derivatives with isoprene side chains
Ethylene is synthesized from methionine via ACC
Abscisic acid is synthesized from a carotenoid intermediate
Brassinosteroids are derived from the sterol campesterol
Strigolactones are synthesized from β-carotene
12.5 Movement of Hormones within the Plant
Plant polarity is maintained by polar auxin streams
Auxin uptake
Auxin efflux
Auxin transport is regulated by multiple mechanisms
12.6 Hormonal Signaling Pathways
The cytokinin and ethylene signal transduction pathways derive from bacterial two-component regulatory systems
Phosphorylation also regulates brassinosteroid, ABA, and auxin perception
Multiple plant hormone receptors use ubiquitination to remove repressor proteins
Plants use electrical signaling for communication between tissues
Cross-regulation allows signal transduction pathways to be integrated
Summary
12.1 Temporal and Spatial Aspects of Signaling
12.2 Signal Perception and Amplification
12.3 Hormones and Plant Development
12.4 Phytohormone Metabolism and Homeostasis
12.5 Movement of Hormones within the Plant
12.6 Hormonal Signaling Pathways
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
13 Signals from Sunlight
13.1 Plant Photoreceptors
Photoresponses are driven by the spectral properties of the energy absorbed
Plant responses to light can be distinguished by the amount of light required
13.2 Phytochromes
Phytochrome is the primary photoreceptor for red and far-red light
Phytochrome can interconvert between Pr and Pfr forms
13.3 Phytochrome Responses
Phytochrome responses vary in lag time and escape time
Phytochrome responses fall into three main categories based on the amount of light required
Phytochrome A mediates responses to continuous far-red light
Phytochrome regulates gene expression
13.4 Blue-Light Responses and Photoreceptors
Blue-light responses have characteristic kinetics and lag times
13.5 Cryptochromes
Blue-light irradiation of the cryptochrome FAD chromophore causes a conformational change
The nucleus is a primary site of cryptochrome action
Cryptochrome interacts with phytochrome
13.6 Phototropins
Phototropins activated by directional blue light initiate seedling phototropism
Phototropins regulate chloroplast movements
Stomatal opening is regulated by blue light, which activates the plasma membrane H+-ATPase
13.7 Responses to Ultraviolet Radiation
Plant photoresponses observed in the field are composite activities
Summary
13.1 Plant Photoreceptors
13.2 Phytochromes
13.3 Phytochrome Responses
13.4 Blue-Light Responses and Photoreceptors
13.5 Cryptochromes
13.6 Phototropins
13.7 Responses to Ultraviolet Radiation
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
14 Seed Dormancy, Germination, and Seedling Establishment
14.1 Seed Anatomy
Seed anatomy varies widely among different plant groups
14.2 Seed Dormancy
There are two basic types of seed dormancy mechanisms: exogenous and endogenous
Non-dormant seeds can exhibit vivipary and precocious germination
The ABA:GA ratio is the primary determinant of embryonic seed dormancy
14.3 Release from Dormancy
Light is an important signal that breaks dormancy in small seeds
Some seeds require either chilling or after-ripening to break dormancy
Seed dormancy can be broken by various chemical compounds
14.4 Seed Germination
Germination and postgermination can be divided into three phases corresponding to the phases of water uptake
14.5 Mobilization of Stored Reserves
Cereal seeds are a model for understanding starch mobilization
Legume seeds are a model for understanding protein mobilization
Oilseeds are a model for understanding lipid remobilization
14.6 Cell Expansion Mechanisms
Polarized growth and cell expansion involve the cytoskeleton and cell wall modification
Microfibril orientation influences growth directionality of cells with diffuse growth
Acid-induced growth and cell wall yielding are mediated by expansins
14.7 Seedling Growth and Establishment
The development of emerging seedlings is strongly influenced by light
Gibberellins and brassinosteroids both suppress photomorphogenesis in darkness
Hook opening is regulated by phytochrome, auxin, and ethylene
Vascular differentiation begins during seedling emergence
The root tip has specialized cells
Ethylene and other hormones regulate root hair development
14.8 Differential Growth Enables Successful Seedling Establishment
Ethylene affects microtubule orientation and induces lateral cell expansion
Auxin promotes growth in stems and coleoptiles, while inhibiting growth in roots
The minimum lag time for auxin-induced elongation is 10 minutes
Auxin-induced proton extrusion loosens the cell wall
14.9 Tropisms: Growth in Response to Directional Stimuli
Gravitropism involves the lateral redistribution of auxin
The gravitropic stimulus perturbs the symmetric movements of auxin
Gravity perception is triggered by the sedimentation of amyloplasts
Gravity sensing may involve pH and calcium ions (Ca2+) as second messengers
Thigmotropism involves signaling by Ca2+, pH, and reactive oxygen species
Hydrotropism involves ABA signaling and asymmetric cytokinin responses
Phototropins are the light receptors involved in phototropism
Phototropism is mediated by the lateral redistribution of auxin
Shoot phototropism occurs in a series of steps
Summary
14.1 Seed Anatomy
14.2 Seed Dormancy
14.3 Release from Dormancy
14.4 Seed Germination
14.5 Mobilization of Stored Reserves
14.6 Cell Expansion Mechanisms
14.7 Seedling Growth and Establishment
14.8 Differential Growth Enables Successful Seedling Establishment
14.9 Tropisms: Growth in Response to Directional Stimuli
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
15 Vegetative Growth and Senescence
15.1 The Root Apical Meristem (RAM)
The root tip has four developmental zones
Auxin and cytokinin contribute to the maintenance and function of the RAM
15.2 The Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM)
The shoot apical meristem has distinct cytohistological zones and layers
Cell identity in the SAM is determined by position rather thanby cell lineage
The size of the SAM is determined by cell number
15.3 Leaf Structure and Phyllotaxy
The arrangement of leaves around the shoot is called phyllotaxy
Auxin-dependent patterning of the shoot apex begins during embryogenesis
15.4 Differentiation of Epidermal Cell Types
A specialized epidermal lineage produces guard cells
15.5 Venation Patterns in Leaves
The primary leaf vein is initiated in the leaf primordium
Auxin canalization initiates development of the leaf trace
15.6 Shoot Branching and Architecture
Auxin, cytokinins, and strigolactones regulate axillary bud outgrowth
The initial signal for axillary bud growth may be an increase in sucrose availability to the bud
15.7 Shade Avoidance
Reducing shade avoidance responses can improve crop yields
15.8 Root Branching and Architecture
Lateral root primordia arise from initial cells in the pericycle
Lateral root formation can be divided into four distinct stages
Plants can modify their root system architecture to optimize water and nutrient uptake
Monocots and eudicots differ in their root system architecture
Root system architecture changes in response to phosphorus deficiencies
15.9 Secondary Growth
The vascular cambium produces secondary xylem and phloem
The cork cambium produces the periderm
15.10 Plant Senescence
Programmed cell death (PCD) is a normal aspect of development in all eukaryotic organisms
During leaf senescence, nutrients are remobilized from the source leaf to vegetative or reproductive sinks
The developmental age of a leaf may differ from its chronological age
Leaf senescence may be sequential, seasonal, or stress-induced
The earliest cellular changes during leaf senescence occur in the chloroplast
Reactive oxygen species serve as internal signaling agents in leaf senescence
Plant hormones interact in the regulation of leaf senescence
15.11 Leaf Abscission
The timing of leaf abscission is regulated by the interaction of ethylene and auxin
15.12 Whole Plant Senescence
Angiosperm life cycles may be annual, biennial, or perennial
Nutrient or hormonal redistribution may trigger senescence in monocarpic plants
Summary
15.1 The Root Apical Meristem (RAM)
15.2 The Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM)
15.3 Leaf Structure and Phyllotaxy
15.4 Differentiation of Epidermal Cell Types
15.5 Venation Patterns in Leaves
15.6 Shoot Branching and Architecture
15.7 Shade Avoidance
15.8 Root Branching and Architecture
15.9 Secondary Growth
15.10 Plant Senescence
15.11 Leaf Abscission
15.12 Whole Plant Senescence
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
16 Flowering and Double Fertilization
16.1 Floral Evocation: Integrating Environmental Cues
16.2 The Shoot Apex and Phase Changes
Plant development has three phases
Juvenile tissues are produced first and are located at the base of the shoot
Phase changes can be influenced by nutrients, gibberellins, and epigenetic regulation
16.3 Photoperiodism: Monitoring Day Length
Plants can be classified according to their photoperiodic responses
Photoperiodism is one of many plant processes controlled by a circadian rhythm
Circadian rhythms exhibit characteristic features
Circadian rhythms adjust to different day–night cycles
The leaf is the site of perception of the photoperiodic signal
Plants monitor day length by measuring the length of the night
Night breaks can cancel the effect of the dark period
Photoperiodic timekeeping during the night depends on a circadian clock
The coincidence model links oscillating light sensitivity and photoperiodism
Phytochrome is the primary photoreceptor in photoperiodism
16.4 Vernalization: Promoting Flowering with Cold Treatment
16.5 Long-Distance Signaling Involved in Flowering
Gibberellins and ethylene can induce flowering
16.6 Floral Meristems and Floral Organ Development
The SAM in Arabidopsis changes with development
The four different types of floral organs are initiated as separate whorls
Two major categories of genes regulate floral development
The ABC model partially explains the determination of floral organ identity
16.7 Pollen Development in the Anther
16.8 Embryo Sac Development in the Ovule
Functional megaspores undergo a series of free nuclear mitotic divisions followed by cellularization
16.9 Pollination and Double Fertilization in Flowering Plants
Two sperm cells are delivered to the female gametophyte by the pollen tube
Pollination begins with adhesion and hydration of a pollen grain on a compatible flower
Pollen tubes grow by tip growth
Double fertilization results in the formation of the zygote and the primary endosperm cell
Summary
16.1 Floral Evocation: Integrating Environmental Cues
16.2 The Shoot Apex and Phase Changes
16.3 Photoperiodism: Monitoring Day Length
16.4 Vernalization: Promoting Flowering with Cold Treatment
16.5 Long-Distance Signaling Involved in Flowering
16.6 Floral Meristems and Floral Organ Development
16.7 Pollen Development in the Anther
16.8 Embryo Sac Development in the Ovule
16.9 Pollination and Double Fertilization in Flowering Plants
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
17 Seed and Fruit Development
17.1 Seed Structure
17.2 Establishment of the Embryonic Axis
17.3 Seed Endosperm Development
Endosperm development and embryogenesis can occur autonomously
Cells of the starchy endosperm and aleurone layer follow divergent developmental pathways
17.4 Seed Coat Development
17.5 Seed Maturation and Desiccation Tolerance
Embryos accumulate proteins and sugars during desiccation
Coat-imposed dormancy correlates with long-term seed viability
17.6 Fruit Development and Ripening
Auxin and gibberellic acid (GA) regulate fruit set and parthenocarpy
Mature dehiscent fruits open spontaneously to release seeds
Fleshy fruits have extensive mesocarp layers
Fleshy fruits undergo ripening
Ripening involves changes in the color of fruit
Fruit softening involves the coordinated action of many cell wall–degrading enzymes
Taste and flavor reflect changes in acids, sugars, aroma, and other compounds
Ethylene regulates the ripening of many fruits
Climacteric and non-climacteric fruit differ in their ethylene responses
Commercial control of fruit ripening
Summary
17.1 Seed Structure
17.2 Establishment of the Embryonic Axis
17.3 Seed Endosperm Development
17.4 Seed Coat Development
17.5 Seed Maturation and Desiccation Tolerance
17.6 Fruit Development and Ripening
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
18 Biotic Interactions
18.1 Plant Interactions with Beneficial Microorganisms
Rhizobacteria can increase nutrient availability, stimulate root branching, and protect against pathogens
18.2 Herbivore Interactions That Harm Plants
Mechanical barriers provide a first line of defense against insect pests and pathogens
Plants’ specialized metabolites can deter insect herbivores
Plants store constitutive toxic compounds in specialized structures
Plants often store defense chemicals as nontoxic water-soluble sugar conjugates in the vacuole
18.3 Inducible Defense Responses to Insect Herbivores
Plants can recognize specific components of insect saliva
Jasmonate activates defense responses against insect herbivores
Hormonal interactions contribute to plant–insect herbivore interactions
Jasmonate initiates the production of defense proteins that inhibit herbivore digestion
Herbivore damage induces systemic defenses
Herbivore-induced volatiles can repel herbivores and attract natural enemies
Herbivore-induced volatiles can serve as long-distance signals between plants
Herbivore-induced volatiles can also act as systemic signals within a plant
Insects have evolved mechanisms to defeat plant defenses
18.4 Plant Defenses against Pathogens
Microbial pathogens have evolved various strategies to invade host plants
Pathogens produce effector molecules that aid in the colonization of their plant host cells
Plants can detect pathogens through perception of pathogen-derived “danger signals”
Resistosomes recognize strain-specific effectors
The hypersensitive response is a common defense against pathogens
A single encounter with a pathogen may increase resistance to future attacks
Phytoalexins with antimicrobial activity accumulate after pathogen attack
RNA interference plays a central role in antiviral immune responses in plants
Some plant parasitic nematodes form specific associations through the formation of distinct feeding structures
Plants compete with other plants by secreting allelopathic specialized metabolites into the soil
Some plants are parasites of other plants
Summary
18.1 Plant Interactions with Beneficial Microorganisms
18.2 Herbivore Interactions That Harm Plants
18.3 Inducible Defense Responses to Insect Herbivores
18.4 Plant Defenses against Pathogens
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
19 Abiotic Stress
19.1 Defining Plant Stress
Physiological adjustment to abiotic stress involves trade-offs between vegetative and reproductive development
19.2 Acclimation versus Adaptation
19.3 Environmental Stressors
Water deficit decreases turgor pressure, increases ion toxicity, and inhibits photosynthesis
Temperature stress affects a broad spectrum of physiological processes
Flooding causes anaerobic stress to roots
Salinity stress has both osmotic and cytotoxic effects
During freezing stress, extracellular ice crystal formation causes cell dehydration
Heavy metals can both mimic essential mineral nutrients and generate ROS
Combinations of abiotic stresses can induce unique signaling and metabolic pathways
Sequential exposure to different abiotic stresses sometimes confers cross-protection
19.4 Stress-Sensing Mechanisms in Plants
Plants use a variety of mechanisms to sense abiotic stress
Chloroplasts and mitochondria respond to abiotic stress by sending stress signals to the nucleus
Plant-wide waves of Ca2+ and ROS mediate systemic acquired acclimation
Hormonal interactions regulate a wide range of abiotic stress responses
Epigenetic mechanisms are also involved in sensing abiotic stress
19.5 Developmental and Physiological Mechanisms That Protect Plants against Abiotic Stress
Plants can activate developmental programs that alter their phenotype
Leaf area
Leaf orientation
Trichomes
Cuticle
Root-to-shoot ratio
Plants adjust osmotically to drying soils by accumulating solutes
Submerged organs develop aerenchyma tissue in response to hypoxia
Antioxidants and ROS-scavenging pathways protect cells from oxidative stress
Molecular chaperones and molecular shields protect proteins and membranes during abiotic stress
Plants can alter their membrane structure in response to temperature and other abiotic stresses
Exclusion and internal tolerance mechanisms allow plants to cope with toxic ions
Plants use cryoprotectant molecules and antifreeze proteins to prevent ice crystal formation
Summary
19.1 Defining Plant Stress
19.2 Acclimation versus Adaptation
19.3 Environmental Stressors
19.4 Stress-Sensing Mechanisms in Plants
19.5 Developmental and Physiological Mechanisms That Protect Plants against Abiotic Stress
Suggested Reading
List of Key Terms
Appendix Plant Breeding and Genome Engineering
A.1 Genetic Modification of Plants
A.2 Editing Plant Genomes with Sequence-Specific Nucleases
A.3 Genetic Engineering of Plants Remains Controversial
List of Key Terms
Glossary
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Z
Illustration Credits
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER 13
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 15
CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 17
CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 19
APPENDIX
Index
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Images
1 Plant and Cell Architecture
2 Water and Plant Cells
3 Water Balance of Plants
4 Mineral Nutrition
5 Assimilation of Inorganic Nutrients
6 Solute Transport
7 Photosynthesis: The Light Reactions
8 Photosynthesis: The Carbon Reactions
9 Photosynthesis: Physiological and Ecological Considerations
10 Translocation in the Phloem
11 Respiration and Lipid Metabolism
12 Signals and Signal Transduction
13 Signals from Sunlight
14 Seed Dormancy, Germination, and Seedling Establishment
15 Vegetative Growth and Senescence
16 Flowering and Double Fertilization
17 Seed and Fruit Development
18 Biotic Interactions
19 Abiotic Stress
Appendix Plant Breeding and Genome Engineering