Exploring Geology ISE

Höfundar: Stephen Reynolds; Julia Johnson (Útgáfa: 7)
Exploring Geology ISE

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Útgefandi
McGraw-Hill Higher Education (International)
ISBN
9781266053016
Print ISBN
9781265211912
Format
ePub
Útgáfa
7
Höfundar
Stephen Reynolds; Julia Johnson
Tungumál
English
Útgefið
2025-07-01
Prent takmörkun á líftíma
100
Prent takmörkun
2
Afritunar takmörkun
2

Kaflar

  • Frontmatter
  • Half Title Page
  • About the Cover
  • Title Page
  • Copyright
  • Connect
  • Brief Contents
  • Contents
  • Preface
  • TELLING THE STORY …
  • TWO-PAGE SPREADS
  • Acknowledgments
  • About the Authors
  • Chapter 1: The Nature of Geology
  • Exploring Geology
  • Introduction
  • 1.1 How Does Geology Influence Where and How We Live?
  • AWhere Is It Safe to Live?
  • BHow Does Geology Influence Our Lives?
  • CWhat Controls the Distribution of Natural Resources?
  • 1.2 How Does Geology Help Explain Our World?
  • AHow Do Continents Differ from Ocean Basins?
  • BWhat Stories Do Landscapes Tell?
  • CHow Has the Global Climate Changed Since the Ice Ages?
  • DWhat Is the Evidence That Life in the Past Was Different from Life Today?
  • 1.3 What Is Inside Earth?
  • AHow Does Earth Change with Depth?
  • BAre Some Layers Stronger Than Others?
  • CWhy Do Some Regions Have High Elevations?
  • 1.4 What Processes Affect Our Planet?
  • AHow Do Forces and Processes Affect Earth?
  • BHow Do Earth’s Surface and Atmosphere Interact with Solar Energy?
  • 1.5 How Do Rocks Form?
  • AWhat Types of Sediments Form in Familiar Surface Environments?
  • BWhat Types of Rocks Form in Hot or Deep Environments?
  • 1.6 What Can Happen to a Rock?
  • 1.7 What Can We Observe in Landscapes?
  • AWhat Features Do Landscapes Display?
  • BWhat Are Some Strategies for Observing Landscapes?
  • 1.8 How Do Concept Sketches Help Us Portray and Understand Features and Processes?
  • AWhat Features and Processes Can Accompany the Eruption of a Volcano?
  • BWhat Is the Procedure for Constructing a Concept Sketch?
  • CWhat Are the Elements of a Concept Sketch?
  • 1.9 How Do the Atmosphere, Water, and Life Interact with Earth’s Surface?
  • AHow Does Water Move on Our Planet?
  • BWhat Is Above, At, and Below Earth’s Surface?
  • CWhat Are Some Examples of Energy and Matter Exchanges Between Two Spheres?
  • 1.10 What Is Earth’s Place in the Solar System?
  • AWhat Are Earth’s Nearest Neighbors?
  • BWhat Are Some Characteristics of the Outer Planets?
  • CWhat Is the Shape and Spacing of the Orbits of the Planets?
  • 1.11 How Is Geology Expressed in the Black Hills and in Rapid City?
  • AWhat Is the Setting of the Black Hills?
  • BWhat Geologic Processes Affect the Rapid City Area?
  • 1.12 How Is Geology Affecting This Place?
  • Chapter 2: Investigating Geologic Questions
  • Introduction
  • 2.1 How Do We Interpret Geologic Clues?
  • AHow Can We Infer the Environment in Which a Rock Formed?
  • BHow Can We Envision the Slow Change of Landscapes Through Time?
  • CHow Do We Determine the Sequence of Past Geologic Events?
  • 2.2 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface?
  • A How Do Maps and Satellite Images Help Us Study Earth’s Surface?
  • 2.3 How Do We Depict Earth’s Heights, Slopes, and Subsurface Geology?
  • AHow Do We Refer to Differences in Topography?
  • BHow Do We Represent Topographic Slopes?
  • CHow Do We Represent Geologic Features in the Subsurface?
  • 2.4 How Are Geologic Problems Quantified?
  • AWhat Is the Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Data?
  • BWhat Quantitative Properties Do We Measure in the Field?
  • CWhat Quantitative Properties Do We Measure in the Laboratory?
  • DHow Do We Calculate Density, and How Does It Differ from Weight?
  • 2.5 How Do Geologists Refer to Rates and Time?
  • AHow Do We Refer to Rates of Geologic Events and Processes?
  • BHow Do We Subdivide Geologic Time?
  • CWhat Are Some Important Times in Earth’s History?
  • 2.6 How Do We Investigate Geologic Questions?
  • AWhat Are Observations and Measurements?
  • BHow Are Interpretations Different from Observations and Measurements?
  • CWhat Are Some Possible Observations and Interpretations?
  • 2.7 How Do We Test Multiple Possible Explanations?
  • AHow Do We Test Alternative Explanations?
  • BHow Do Geoscientists and Other Scientists Build Understanding?
  • 2.8 What Does a Geoscientist Do?
  • AHow Do Geoscientists Investigate Questions in the Field and Laboratory?
  • BHow Do Geoscientists Study Inaccessible Places?
  • 2.9 How Did This Crater Form?
  • AWhat Would You Observe at the Crater?
  • BWhat Is the Geologic Setting of This Crater?
  • CWhat Are Some Possible Explanations for the Origin of the Crater?
  • 2.10 What Is the Geologic History of Upheaval Dome?
  • AWhat Are Some Observations and Questions About the Dome?
  • BWhat Sequence of Geologic Events Formed the Rocks and the Dome?
  • CHow Would You Test Possible Explanations for the Origin of the Dome?
  • Chapter 3: Plate Tectonics
  • Introduction
  • 3.1 What Are the Major Features of Earth?
  • 3.2 Why Do Some Continents Have Matching Shapes?
  • AWere the Continents Once Joined Together?
  • BIs the Distribution of Fossils Consistent with Continental Drift?
  • CHow Did Continental Drift Explain Glacial Deposits in Unusual Places?
  • 3.3 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur?
  • AWhere Do Most Earthquakes Occur?
  • BWhich Areas Have Volcanoes or Mountains?
  • 3.4 What Causes Tectonic Activity to Occur in Belts?
  • AWhat Do Earthquake and Volcanic Activity Tell Us About Earth’s Lithosphere?
  • BHow Do Plates Move Relative to One Another?
  • CWhere Are the Three Types of Plate Boundaries?
  • 3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries?
  • AWhat Happens at Mid-Ocean Ridges?
  • BWhat Happens When Divergence Splits a Continent Apart?
  • 3.6 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries?
  • AWhat Happens When Two Oceanic Plates Converge?
  • BWhat Happens When an Oceanic Plate and a Continental Plate Converge?
  • CWhat Causes the Pacific Ring of Fire?
  • DWhat Happens When Two Continents Collide?
  • 3.7 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries?
  • AWhy Do Mid-Ocean Ridges Have a Zigzag Pattern?
  • BWhat Are Some Other Types of Transform Boundaries?
  • 3.8 How Do Plates Move and Interact?
  • AWhat Moves the Plates?
  • BHow Fast and in What Directions Do Plates Move Relative to One Another?
  • CIs There a Way to Directly Measure Plate Motions?
  • DWhat Happens Where Plate Boundaries Change Their Orientation?
  • 3.9 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine Rates of Seafloor Spreading?
  • AWhat Causes Earth’s Magnetic Field?
  • BHow Do Magnetic Reversals Help Us Infer the Age of Rocks?
  • CHow Are Magnetic Reversals Expressed at Mid-Ocean Ridges, and How Do Magnetic Patterns on the Seafloor Help Us Study Plate Tectonics?
  • 3.10 What Geologic Features Does Plate Tectonics Help Explain?
  • AIs the Age of the Seafloor Consistent with Plate Tectonics?
  • BIf Continents Have Rifted Apart, Do Their Outlines and Geology Match?
  • CHow Does Plate Tectonics Help Explain Island and Seamount Chains?
  • 3.11 Why Is South America Lopsided?
  • AWhat Is the Present Setting of South America?
  • BWhat Is the Geometry of the South American Plate and Its Neighbors?
  • CHow Did South America Develop Its Present Plate-Tectonic Situation?
  • 3.12 Where Is the Safest Place to Live?
  • Chapter 4: Earth Materials
  • Introduction
  • 4.1 What Is the Difference Between a Rock and a Mineral?
  • AWhat Materials Make Up a Landscape?
  • BWhat Is and What Is Not a Mineral?
  • 4.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks?
  • AHow Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks?
  • BWhat Different Attributes Do Rocks Display?
  • 4.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral from Another?
  • AWhat Clues Does the Appearance of a Mineral Provide?
  • BWhat Tests Can We Perform to Help Us Identify a Mineral?
  • 4.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape?
  • AHow Is the Shape of a Mineral Related to Its Internal Structure?
  • BHow Are Atoms Arranged in a Mineral?
  • CHow Is the Shape of a Crystal Affected by the Environment in Which It Grows?
  • 4.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals?
  • AWhat Happens at an Atomic Scale When a Mineral Cleaves?
  • BWhat Happens if All of the Bonds Have the Same Strength?
  • CWhat Are Some Common Types of Cleavage?
  • 4.6 How Are Minerals Classified?
  • AHow Are Similar Chemical Elements Grouped in the Periodic Table?
  • BWhat Are the Major Classes of Rock-Forming Minerals?
  • 4.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure of Silicate Minerals?
  • AWhat Do Silicate Minerals Contain?
  • BWhat Are the Different Types of Silicate Minerals?
  • 4.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals?
  • AWhat Are Some Light-Colored Silicate Minerals?
  • BWhat Are Some Dark-Colored Silicate Minerals?
  • 4.9 What Are Some Common Nonsilicate Minerals?
  • 4.10 Where Are Different Minerals Abundant?
  • AWhat Types of Minerals Compose Different Parts of Earth?
  • BWhat Elements Are Common in the Crust, Whole Earth, and Universe?
  • 4.11 What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals?
  • AHow Are Minerals Related to Elements and Atoms?
  • BWhat Is a Model for the Structure of an Atom?
  • CHow Does the Periodic Table Organize the Characteristics of Elements?
  • 4.12 How Do Atoms Bond Together?
  • AHow Do Atoms Bond Together?
  • BHow Does the Periodic Table Reflect These Bond Types?
  • CHow Do Bonds Explain the Difference Between Diamond and Graphite?
  • 4.13 How Do Chemical Reactions Help Minerals Grow or Dissolve?
  • AWhat Are the Properties of Water, and How Does It Dissolve Some Solid Materials?
  • BHow Do Minerals Precipitate from Water?
  • 4.14 What Are Gemstones and Where Do They Form?
  • AWhat Are Some Important Non-Diamond Gemstones?
  • BIn What Settings Does Diamond Occur and Get Extracted?
  • CIn What Geologic Environments Do Gem-Quality Minerals Form?
  • 4.15 How Are Minerals Used in Society?
  • AHow Are Minerals Used for Their Chemical Components?
  • BHow Are Minerals Used for Their Physical Properties?
  • 4.16 What Minerals Would You Use to Build a House?
  • ADescribe and Identify These Minerals
  • BDevise Ways to Build a House Using Minerals and Mineral Products
  • Chapter 5: Igneous Environments
  • Introduction
  • 5.1 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display?
  • AWhat Textures Are Common in Igneous Rocks?
  • BIn What Settings Do the Different Igneous Textures Form?
  • 5.2 How Are Igneous Rocks Classified?
  • A How Do the Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Vary?
  • B How Do We Examine and Identify Different Minerals?
  • C How Does the Composition of Igneous Rocks Vary?
  • 5.3 What Are Some Other Igneous Rocks?
  • A What Are Some Other Common Igneous Rocks and Textures?
  • B How Do Mineral Abundances and Igneous Rocks Relate to Our Classification?
  • 5.4 How Do Temperature and Pressure Vary Inside Earth?
  • A How Did Earth Get So Hot, and Why Hasn’t It Cooled Off More?
  • B How Do Pressure and Temperature Change with Depth?
  • 5.5 How Do Rocks Melt?
  • A What Happens When a Substance Changes from a Solid to a Liquid?
  • BUnder What Conditions Is a Material Solid or Liquid?
  • C What Causes a Rock to Melt?
  • 5.6 What Processes Occur In Magma Chambers?
  • A What Processes Are Involved in the Formation of Igneous Rocks?
  • B What Processes Influence the Composition of a Magma?
  • 5.7 How Does Magma Move?
  • A How Does Magma Rise Through the Crust?
  • B What Determines How Far a Magma Can Rise Toward Earth’s Surface?
  • C What Controls How Easily Magma Moves?
  • 5.8 How Does Magma Solidify?
  • A Under What Conditions Does Magma Solidify?
  • B In What Order Do Minerals Commonly Crystallize?
  • 5.9 How Does Magma Form Along Divergent Plate Boundaries?
  • A What Causes Melting Along Mid-Ocean Ridges?
  • B What Types of Igneous Rocks Form Along Mid-Ocean Ridges?
  • C How Are Magmas Generated in Continental Rifts?
  • 5.10 How Does Magma Form Along Convergent Plate Boundaries?
  • A How Is Magma Generated Along Subduction Zones?
  • B What Happens When Subduction-Derived Magmas Encounter the Crust?
  • C How Does Water Get into a Subduction Zone?
  • D What Magmatism Accompanies Continental Collisions?
  • 5.11 How Is Magma Generated at Hot Spots and Other Sites Away from Plate Boundaries?
  • A What Type of Magmatic Activity Occurs at Hot Spots?
  • B Where Does Magmatism Occur Away from Plate Boundaries?
  • 5.12 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form and How Are They Expressed in Landscapes?
  • A What Is a Magma Chamber and What Processes Occur in Large Chambers?
  • B In What Settings Do Large Magma Chambers Form?
  • C How Are Large, Solidified Magma Chambers Exposed at the Surface?
  • 5.13 How Are Small Intrusions Formed and Expressed in Landscapes?
  • AWhat Features Form When Magma Is Injected as Sheets?
  • BWhat Kinds of Magma Chambers Form Within and Beneath Volcanoes?
  • 5.14 How Did the Sierra Nevada Form?
  • AWhat Is the Nature of the Sierra Nevada Batholith?
  • BWhat Is the Tectonic History of the Batholith and Surrounding Areas?
  • 5.15 What Types of Igneous Processes Are Occurring Here?
  • ATectonic Settings of Igneous Activity
  • BPredicting the Types of Igneous Rocks and Eruptions at Each Site
  • Chapter 6: Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
  • Introduction
  • 6.1 What Is and Is Not a Volcano?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of a Volcano?
  • BIs Every Hill Composed of Volcanic Rocks a Volcano?
  • CWhat Are Some Different Types of Volcanoes?
  • 6.2 What Controls the Style of Eruption?
  • AWhat Are Ways That Magma Erupts?
  • BHow Do Gases Affect Magma?
  • CHow Does Viscosity Affect Gases in Magma?
  • 6.3 What Features Characterize Basaltic Volcanoes?
  • AWhat Are Scoria Cones and Basalt Flows?
  • BHow Do Scoria Cones and Basalt Flows Form Around the Same Vent?
  • CWhat Do Scoria Cones and Basalt Flows Look Like?
  • 6.4 How Do Shield Volcanoes Form?
  • AWhat Is a Shield Volcano?
  • BHow Do Shield Volcanoes Erupt?
  • 6.5 What Causes Flood Basalts?
  • AWhat Are Flood Basalts?
  • BHow Do Flood Basalts Erupt onto the Surface?
  • CWhere Does the Magma for Flood Basalts Originate?
  • 6.6 What Are the Hazards of Basaltic Eruptions?
  • AWhat Is Meant by a Hazard and a Risk?
  • BWhat Hazards Are Associated with Eruptions of Basaltic Scoria and Ash, and Gas?
  • CWhat Are the Hazards Associated with Lava Flows?
  • DHow Do Basaltic Eruptions Cause Floods of Water, Ice, and Debris?
  • 6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes?
  • AWhat Are Some Characteristics of a Composite Volcano?
  • BWhat Types of Rocks and Deposits Form on Composite Volcanoes?
  • 6.8 What Disasters Were Caused by Composite Volcanoes?
  • AHow Did Vesuvius Destroy Pompeii?
  • BWhat Happened at St. Pierre, Martinique?
  • CWhat Events Preceded and Accompanied the Mount St. Helens Eruption?
  • 6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form?
  • AWhat Are Some Characteristics of a Volcanic Dome?
  • BHow Are Volcanic Domes Formed and Destroyed?
  • CWhat Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?
  • 6.10 Why Does a Caldera Form?
  • AWhat Is a Caldera?
  • BHow Does a Caldera Form?
  • 6.11 What Disasters Were Related to Calderas?
  • ADid the Eruption of a Caldera Destroy a Civilization Near Greece?
  • BWhat Happened During the Deadly Eruption of Krakatau?
  • CCould the Yellowstone Caldera Cause a Future Disaster?
  • 6.12 What Areas Have the Highest Potential for Volcanic Hazards?
  • AHow Do We Assess the Danger Posed by a Volcano?
  • BWhat Areas Around a Volcano Have the Highest Risk?
  • CWhat Regions Have the Highest Risk for Volcanic Eruptions?
  • 6.13 How Do We Monitor Volcanoes?
  • ACan Seismic Activity Signal an Eruption?
  • BHow Does Gas Output Change Before an Eruption?
  • CHow Are Changes in Heat Flow Measured?
  • DHow Are Changes in a Volcano’s Topography Monitored?
  • ECan Mudflows Caused by Volcanoes Be Detected Remotely?
  • 6.14 What Volcanic Hazards Are Posed by Mount Rainier?
  • AWhat Kind of Volcano Is Mount Rainier?
  • BWhat Is the Plate-Tectonic Setting of Mount Rainier?
  • CWhat Hazards Does Mount Rainier Pose to the Surrounding Area?
  • 6.15 How Would You Assess Hazards on This Volcano?
  • AObserving the Characteristics of the Volcano
  • BAssessing the Volcanic Hazards of the Island
  • Chapter 7: Sedimentary Environments and Rocks
  • Introduction
  • 7.1 What Sedimentary Environments Occur on Land?
  • 7.2 What Sedimentary Environments Are Near Shorelines and in Oceans?
  • 7.3 Where Do Clasts Come From?
  • AHow Do Physical and Chemical Weathering Produce Sediment?
  • BWhy Are There So Many Different Products of Weathering?
  • CHow Do Transportation and Erosion Affect Sediment?
  • 7.4 What Are the Characteristics of Clastic Sediments?
  • AHow Are Clastic Sediments Classified?
  • BWhat Controls the Size, Shape, and Sorting of Clasts?
  • 7.5 What Types of Rocks Do Clastic Sediments Form?
  • AWhat Are Some Common Clastic Sedimentary Rocks?
  • BHow Do Clastic Sediments Become Clastic Sedimentary Rock?
  • 7.6 What Are Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks and How Do They Form?
  • AWhat Types of Sediment Can Precipitate by Water or Be Deposited by Organisms?
  • BWhat Are Some Common Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks?
  • 7.7 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers?
  • AWhat Types of Layers Do Sedimentary Rocks Contain?
  • BHow Do Layers in Sedimentary Rocks Form?
  • 7.8 Where Do Breccia and Conglomerate Form?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of Breccia, and Where Does Breccia Form?
  • BWhat Are the Characteristics of Conglomerate, and Where Does Conglomerate Form?
  • 7.9 Where Does Sandstone Form?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of Sandstone?
  • BIn What Land Environments Does Sandstone Form?
  • CHow Does Sandstone Form Along Shorelines?
  • DHow Does Sandstone Form in Offshore Environments?
  • 7.10 How Do Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Form?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks?
  • BIn What Land Environments Do Siltstone and Shale Form?
  • CWhere Along Shorelines and Farther Offshore Do Silt and Clay Accumulate?
  • DHow Are Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Expressed in the Landscape?
  • 7.11 How Do Carbonate Rocks Form?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of Carbonate Rocks?
  • BIn What Nonmarine Environments Do Carbonate Rocks Form?
  • CHow Do Carbonate Rocks Form in Marine and Nearshore Environments?
  • DHow Are Carbonate Rocks Expressed in the Landscape?
  • 7.12 How Do Changing Environments Create a Sequence of Different Kinds of Sediments?
  • AWhat Happens When Environments Shift Through Time?
  • BWhat Happens When the Sea Moves Out?
  • 7.13 How Do We Study Sedimentary Sequences?
  • AWhat Attributes of Sedimentary Rocks Are Indicators of Environment?
  • BWhat Can We Observe and Interpret in a Sequence of Sedimentary Rocks?
  • 7.14 Why Are Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Important to Our Society?
  • AHow Do Sedimentary Rocks Control the Distribution of Resources?
  • BHow Do Sedimentary Rocks Help Us Understand Earth’s Geologic History?
  • 7.15 How Did Sedimentary Layers West of Denver Form?
  • AHow Are the Sedimentary Layers Exposed?
  • BHow Are the Sedimentary Layers Expressed in the Landscape?
  • CWhat History Is Recorded in the Sedimentary Rocks?
  • 7.16 What Is the Sedimentary History of This Plateau?
  • AObserve the Sequence and Characteristics of Sedimentary Layers
  • BInterpret the Sedimentary History of the Sequence of Layers
  • Chapter 8: Deformation and Metamorphism
  • Introduction
  • 8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress?
  • AWhat Are Force and Stress?
  • BWhat Kinds of Stress Affect Rocks, and What Is the Strength of Rocks?
  • CHow Do Rocks and Other Earth Materials Respond to Force and Stress?
  • 8.2 How Do Rocks Respond to Changes in Stress, Temperature, and Fluids?
  • AHow Do Rocks Respond to Differential Stress?
  • BWhat Processes Affect Rocks at Different Depths?
  • 8.3 How Do Rocks Fracture?
  • AIn What Different Ways Do Rocks Fracture?
  • BHow Do Joints Form?
  • CWhat Other Stresses Form Joints?
  • DHow Does a Fault Form?
  • 8.4 What Are Different Types of Faults?
  • AHow Do We Describe Faults?
  • BWhat Do We Call the Rocks Above and Below a Fault?
  • CWhat Are the Main Types of Faults?
  • 8.5 What Are Folds and How Are They Shaped?
  • AWhat Is a Fold and What Are the Main Types of Folds?
  • BWhat Is the Geometry of Folds?
  • 8.6 What Are Some Metamorphic Features?
  • AWhat Is Rock Cleavage?
  • BWhat Is Foliation and How Is It Expressed in Rocks?
  • CWhat Is Lineation and How Is It Expressed in Metamorphic Rocks?
  • DWhat Are Some Other Features in Metamorphic Rocks?
  • 8.7 What Are Some Common Metamorphic Rocks?
  • AWhat Rocks Form When Sedimentary Rocks Are Metamorphosed?
  • BWhat Rocks Form When Igneous Rocks Are Metamorphosed?
  • 8.8 How Does Metamorphism Occur?
  • AWhat Causes Metamorphism?
  • BWhat Causes Regional Metamorphism?
  • CWhat Chemical Processes Occur During Metamorphism and Deformation?
  • DWhat Physical Processes Can Occur During Metamorphism?
  • 8.9 Where Does Metamorphism Occur?
  • AHow Do Metamorphic Conditions Vary with Depth and Tectonic Setting?
  • BWhat Activity Occurs Along Ocean-Continent Convergent Boundaries?
  • CWhat Deformation and Metamorphism Occur Along Continental Collisions?
  • 8.10 What Processes Occur in Extensional and Strike-Slip Settings?
  • AWhat Type of Deformation and Metamorphism Accompanies Divergence?
  • BWhere Do Strike-Slip Faults and Shear Zones Form?
  • CWhat Features Form Along Strike-Slip Faults?
  • 8.11 How Are Different Structures and Metamorphic Features Related?
  • AHow Are Fractures, Folds, Tilting, and Shear Zones Related?
  • BWhat Structural and Metamorphic Features Form Near Folds and Thrust Faults?
  • CHow Is Cleavage Related to Folds?
  • 8.12 How Are Geologic Structures and Metamorphic Rocks Expressed in the Landscape?
  • AHow Are Joints Expressed in Landscapes?
  • BHow Are Faults Expressed in Landscapes?
  • CHow Do Tilted and Folded Layers Erode?
  • DHow Are Metamorphic Rocks Expressed in Landscapes?
  • 8.13 How Do We Study Geologic Structures and Metamorphic Features?
  • AWhat Can We Learn from Field Studies?
  • BHow Can We Determine When a Fault Was Active?
  • CHow Do We Investigate Metamorphic Rocks?
  • 8.14 What Is the Structural and Metamorphic History of New England?
  • AWhat Rocks and Structures Are Exposed on the Surface?
  • BWhat Is Below the Surface?
  • CHow Did Metamorphic Conditions Vary Across the Region?
  • 8.15 What Structural and Metamorphic Events Occurred Here?
  • Chapter 9: Geologic Time
  • Introduction
  • 9.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events?
  • 9.2 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes?
  • AHow Does a Typical Landscape Form?
  • BHow Do We Infer the Age of a Landscape Surface?
  • 9.3 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity?
  • AWhat Does an Angular Unconformity Represent?
  • BHow Does a Nonconformity Form?
  • CWhat Is a Disconformity and What Does It Indicate About an Area’s History?
  • 9.4 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events?
  • AHow Does Radioactive Decay Occur?
  • BWhat Isotopic Systems Do We Use to Determine Ages of Rocks and Events?
  • CWhat Can Isotopic Ages Tell Us?
  • 9.5 What Are Fossils?
  • AWhat Are Fossils and How Are They Preserved?
  • BWhat Traces Do Creatures Leave in the Rock Record?
  • CWhat Determines Whether a Fossil Is Preserved?
  • 9.6 How and Why Did Living Things Change Through Geologic Time?
  • AHow Do Fossils Vary with Age?
  • BWhat Factors Determine Whether a Species Survives or Becomes Extinct?
  • 9.7 How Are Fossils Used to Infer Ages of Rocks?
  • AHow Do Fossils Change Through a Sequence of Sedimentary Rocks?
  • BHow Do We Use Fossils to Correlate Two Sequences of Rocks?
  • 9.8 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed?
  • AWhat Are the Main Subdivisions of the Geologic Timescale?
  • BHow Are Numeric Ages Assigned to the Geologic Timescale?
  • CHow Is the Timescale Used to Assign Numeric Ages to Rocks and Events?
  • 9.9 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth?
  • AWhat Were the Early Attempts to Estimate the Age of Earth?
  • BWhat Is the Evidence That Earth’s History Is Not Short?
  • CWhat Are the Oldest Dated Rocks on Earth?
  • 9.10 What Events Occurred Early in Earth’s History and How Did Earth Change Over Time?
  • AWhat Are Impacts and How Are They Expressed on the Surface?
  • BWhat Types of Rocks Formed Early in Earth’s History?
  • CHow Did Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans Form and Change Over Time?
  • 9.11 What Were Some Milestones in the Early History of Life on Earth?
  • AWhat Were the Earliest Forms of Life on Earth?
  • BWhat Was the Cambrian Explosion?
  • CWhat Life Existed During the Paleozoic Era?
  • 9.12 What Were Some Milestones in the Later History of Life on Earth?
  • AWhat Life Was Abundant During the Mesozoic Era?
  • BWhat Were Dinosaurs and What Caused Their Demise?
  • CWhat Life Appeared During the Cenozoic Era?
  • 9.13 How Do We Reconstruct Geologic Histories?
  • AHow Do We Correlate Units and Events in Two Sections of Rocks?
  • BWhy Do Some Rock Units Change from One Section to Another?
  • CWhat Are Some Approaches to Investigating Geologic History?
  • 9.14 Why Do We Investigate Geologic History?
  • AHow Do Geologic Ages Help Us Evaluate Geologic Hazards?
  • BHow Do Geologic Ages Help Us Explore for Natural Resources?
  • CHow Does Geologic History Help Us Investigate Our Origins?
  • 9.15 What Is the History of the Grand Canyon?
  • 9.16 What Is the Geologic History of This Place?
  • Chapter 10: The Seafloor and Continental Margins
  • Introduction
  • 10.1 How Do We Explore the Seafloor?
  • AHow Do We Map and Investigate the Seafloor?
  • BHow Do We Map the Seafloor from Space?
  • CWhat Can We Learn from Ocean Drilling?
  • DHow Do We Image What Is Below the Ocean Floor?
  • 10.2 What Processes Occur at Mid-Ocean Ridges?
  • AWhat Happens When Plates Move Apart?
  • BWhat Accounts for Variations in the Shape of Mid-Ocean Ridges?
  • CWhat Are Black Smokers and How Do They Form?
  • 10.3 What Are Major Features of the Deep Ocean?
  • 10.4 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts, and Oceanic Plateaus Form?
  • AHow Do Some Oceanic Islands and Seamounts Form?
  • BHow Do Oceanic Plateaus Form?
  • CWhat Is the Distribution of Hot Spots, Linear Island Chains, and Oceanic Plateaus?
  • 10.5 What Processes Form Island Arcs?
  • AHow Do Island Arcs Form?
  • BWhat Happens in Front of and Behind an Island Arc?
  • CWhy Are Island Arcs Curved?
  • DWhere Are the Main Island Arcs of the World?
  • 10.6 How Did Smaller Seas of the Pacific Form?
  • 10.7 How Did Smaller Seas Near Eurasia Form?
  • 10.8 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form?
  • AIn What Settings Do Coral Reefs Form?
  • BHow Do Atolls Form?
  • CWhere Do Reefs Occur in the World?
  • 10.9 What Is the Geology of Continental Margins?
  • AWhat Features Are Typical of Continental Margins?
  • BWhat Settings Lead to Underwater Slope Failure?
  • 10.10 How Do Marine Evaporite Deposits Form?
  • AHow Do Evaporite Deposits Occur Along Continental Margins?
  • BHow Do Evaporites Form Near Continental Margins?
  • CWhat Structures Do Salt Deposits Form?
  • DWhat Salt Structures Occur Along the Gulf Coast of the United States?
  • 10.11 How Did Earth’s Modern Oceans Evolve?
  • 10.12 How Did the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Region Form?
  • 10.13 How Did These Ocean Features and Continental Margins Form?
  • Chapter 11: Mountains, Basins, and Continents
  • Introduction
  • 11.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation?
  • AWhat Controls Regional Elevation?
  • BWhat Causes Variations in Crustal Thickness?
  • CHow Is Regional Elevation Decreased?
  • DHow Is Regional Elevation Increased?
  • EWhat Is the Influence of the Thickness of the Lithosphere?
  • 11.2 Where Do Mountain Belts and High Regions Form?
  • AIn Which Tectonic Settings Do Regional Mountain Belts Form?
  • BWhat Causes These Regions to Have High Elevation?
  • CWhat Happens During the Erosion of Mountain Belts?
  • DWhat Controls Regional Elevations in North America?
  • 11.3 How Do Local Mountains Form?
  • AHow Does Volcanism Form Local Mountains?
  • BHow Do Faults Build Mountains?
  • CHow Does Folding Build Mountains?
  • DHow Can Differential Erosion Form a Local Mountain?
  • 11.4 Where Do Basins Form?
  • AIn What Tectonic Settings Do Basins Form?
  • BWhat Formed These Basins?
  • 11.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form at Convergent Continental Margins?
  • AWhat Processes Accompany Ocean-Continent Convergence?
  • BWhat Determines If the Overriding Plate Is Shortened or Extended?
  • CWhat Features Accompany Continental Collisions?
  • 11.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur?
  • AHow Do Continents Accommodate Crustal Extension?
  • BWhat Happens When Extension Accompanies Subduction?
  • CHow Do We Determine the Age of a Basin?
  • 11.7 What Are the Characteristics and History of Continental Hot Spots?
  • AWhat Features Are Typical of Continental Hot Spots?
  • BHow Do Continental Hot Spots Evolve?
  • 11.8 What Features Characterize the Interiors of Continents?
  • AWhat Features Are Common in Continental Interiors?
  • BWhat Regional Effects Influence the Geologic History of Continental Interiors?
  • 11.9 What Are Tectonic Terranes?
  • AHow Do We Recognize a Terrane and Where Do Terranes Originate?
  • BHow Do We Infer the Origin of a Terrane and the Timing of Terrane Accretion?
  • 11.10 How Do Continents Form?
  • AHow Old Is North America?
  • BWhat Are the Ages of the Other Continents?
  • 11.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart?
  • 11.12 How Did the Appalachian and Ouachita Mountains Form?
  • 11.13 What Is the Geologic History of the Western United States?
  • 11.14 Where Will Mountains and Basins Form in This Region?
  • Chapter 12: Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior
  • Introduction
  • 12.1 What Is an Earthquake?
  • AHow Do We Describe an Earthquake?
  • BWhat Causes Most Earthquakes?
  • CHow Do Volcanoes and Magma Cause Earthquakes?
  • DWhat Are Some Other Causes of Seismic Waves?
  • 12.2 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes?
  • AWhat Processes Precede and Follow Faulting?
  • BHow Do Earthquake Ruptures Grow?
  • 12.3 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?
  • AWhere Do Earthquakes Occur in the Eastern Hemisphere?
  • BWhere Do Earthquakes Occur in the Western Hemisphere and Atlantic Ocean?
  • 12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along Plate Boundaries and Within Plates?
  • AHow Are Earthquakes Related to Mid-Ocean Ridges?
  • BHow Are Earthquakes Related to Subduction Zones?
  • CHow Are Earthquakes Related to Continental Collisions?
  • DHow Are Earthquakes Generated Within Continents?
  • 12.5 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel?
  • AWhat Kinds of Seismic Waves Do Earthquakes Generate?
  • BHow Are Seismic Waves Recorded?
  • CHow Are Seismic Records Viewed?
  • 12.6 How Do We Determine the Location and Size of an Earthquake?
  • AHow Do We Locate Earthquakes?
  • BHow Do We Measure the Size of an Earthquake?
  • CWhat Can the Intensity of Ground Shaking Tell Us About an Earthquake?
  • 12.7 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage?
  • AWhat Destruction Can Arise from Shaking Due to Seismic Waves?
  • BWhat Destruction Can Happen Following an Earthquake?
  • CHow Can We Limit Risks from Earthquakes?
  • 12.8 What Were Some Major North American Earthquakes?
  • 12.9 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes?
  • AWhat Happened During the Catastrophic Tohoku Earthquake of 2011?
  • BWhat Caused Recent Earthquakes in Haiti and Turkey-Syria?
  • 12.10 How Does a Tsunami Form and Cause Destruction?
  • AHow Are Tsunamis Generated?
  • BWhat Kind of Destruction Can a Tsunami Cause?
  • 12.11 How Do We Study Earthquakes in the Field?
  • AHow Do We Study Recent Earthquakes in the Field?
  • BHow Do We Study Faults with Satellites?
  • CHow Do We Study Faults Associated with Prehistoric Earthquakes?
  • 12.12 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
  • ACan We Anticipate Which Areas Are Most Likely to Have Earthquakes?
  • BHow Do We Approach Long-Range Earthquake Forecasting?
  • CHow Successful Are Short-Term Predictions?
  • 12.13 What Is the Potential for Earthquakes Along the San Andreas Fault?
  • 12.14 How Do We Explore Earth’s Subsurface?
  • 12.15 What Do Seismic Waves Indicate About Earth’s Interior?
  • AHow Do Seismic Waves Travel Through Materials?
  • BHow Do Seismic Waves Travel Through Earth’s Crust and Mantle?
  • CHow Are Seismic Waves Used to Examine Earth’s Deep Interior?
  • 12.16 How Do We Investigate Deep Processes?
  • AHow Do We Investigate Deep Conditions?
  • BHow Does Seismic Tomography Help Us Explore the Earth?
  • CWhat Processes Are Occurring in the Mantle and the Core-Mantle Boundary?
  • 12.17 What Happened During the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964?
  • AWhat Types of Damage Did the Earthquake Cause?
  • BWhat Happened in the Sea During the Earthquake?
  • CWhat Are Some Other Manifestations of Tectonics?
  • 12.18 Where Did This Earthquake Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected?
  • Chapter 13: Climate, Weather, and Their Influences on Geology
  • Introduction
  • 13.1 What Causes Winds?
  • AWhat Is Air Pressure?
  • BWhat Causes Atmospheric Pressure and How Is It Measured?
  • CHow Does Air Pressure Vary Laterally?
  • DHow Do Variations in Pressure Cause Air to Move?
  • 13.2 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds?
  • AWhat Causes Breezes Along Coasts to Reverse Direction Between Day and Night?
  • BWhy Do Regional Wind Patterns Develop?
  • 13.3 Why Does It Rain, Snow, and Hail?
  • AWhat Controls the Physical State of Water in the Atmosphere?
  • BHow Do Water Droplets Form and Grow?
  • CHow Do Ice Crystals Form and Help Raindrops Grow?
  • 13.4 How Does Rising Air Cause Precipitation?
  • A What Happens When Water Evaporates or Condenses?
  • BWhat Are Weather Fronts and How Do They Cause Clouds and Precipitation?
  • CHow Do Weather Maps Depict Weather Fronts and High and Low Pressure?
  • DHow Does Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation Affect Precipitation?
  • 13.5 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Other Storms Develop?
  • AWhat Is a Hurricane?
  • BWhat Is a Supercell Thunderstorm?
  • CWhat Are Tornadoes and Where Do They Strike?
  • 13.6 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents?
  • 13.7 How Do Ocean Currents Influence Climate?
  • AHow Do Sea-Surface Temperatures Vary from Place to Place?
  • BWhere Do Deep Ocean Currents Flow?
  • CHow Do Ocean Currents Affect Temperatures and Precipitation on Land?
  • 13.8 What Causes Short-Term Climatic Variations?
  • AWhat Is a Monsoon?
  • BWhat Causes a Drought?
  • CHow Does the Tilt of the Earth Cause the Seasons?
  • 13.9 What Controls the Location of Rain Forests?
  • AWhat Is a Rain Forest?
  • BWhere Do Rain Forests Occur?
  • CWhy Are Rain Forests Disappearing?
  • DWhat Role Do Rain Forests Play in Ecology?
  • 13.10 What Are Deserts and How Do They Form?
  • AWhat Is a Desert?
  • BWhere Do Deserts and Other Arid Lands Occur?
  • CIn What Settings Do Deserts and Other Dry Lands Form?
  • DWhat Is Desertification?
  • 13.11 How Does Wind Help Shape Landscapes?
  • AHow Does Wind Pick Up and Transport Sediment?
  • BWhat Are Some Expressions of Wind Erosion?
  • CWhat Features Are Produced by Deposition from Wind?
  • 13.12 What Features Record Transport and Deposition of Material by the Wind?
  • AWhat Are the Main Types of Sand Dunes and How Does Each Form?
  • BWhat Other Landforms Does Wind Produce?
  • 13.13 What Features Are Common in Deserts?
  • AWhat Landscape Features Are Characteristic of Deserts?
  • BWhat Features Develop Over Time on Desert Landscapes?
  • 13.14 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change?
  • AWhat Is the Evidence for Recent Climate Change?
  • BHow Do We Use Proxy Data to Investigate Past Changes in Climate?
  • 13.15 What Factors Influence Climate Change?
  • AWhat Processes Influence Atmospheric Temperature Change?
  • 13.16 What Are the Consequences of Climate Change?
  • AWhat Are Some Possible Consequences of Climate Change to the Environment?
  • BHow Might Climate Change Promote More Severe Weather?
  • 13.17 What Is the Relationship Among Climate, Tectonics, and Landscape Evolution?
  • AHow Does Plate Tectonics Affect Climate?
  • BHow Does Plate Tectonics Influence the Climate of a Region?
  • CHow Does Climate Affect Tectonics?
  • 13.18 What Happened During Hurricane Sandy?
  • 13.19 What Kinds of Climate and Weather Would Occur in This Place?
  • Chapter 14: Glaciers, COASTS, and CHANGING Sea Levels
  • Introduction
  • 14.1 What Are Glaciers?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of Glaciers?
  • BWhat Are the Types of Glaciers?
  • CWhere Are Most Ice Sheets and Glaciers?
  • 14.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish?
  • AHow Do Snow and Ice Accumulate in Glaciers?
  • BHow Does a Glacier Form and Change as It Moves Downhill?
  • CHow Do Glaciers Move?
  • DWhat Happens When a Glacier Encounters the Sea or a Lake?
  • 14.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and Deposit?
  • AHow Do Glaciers Erode?
  • BHow Do Glaciers Transport Material?
  • CHow Do Glaciers Deposit Material?
  • 14.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation?
  • AHow Does Glacial Erosion Modify Landscapes?
  • BWhat Landforms Do Valley Glaciers Form When They Deposit Sediment?
  • CWhat Alpine Landforms Form in Bedrock?
  • 14.5 What Are the Landforms of Continental Glaciation?
  • 14.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers?
  • AWhat Types of Deposits Are Related to Glacial Episodes?
  • BWhat Is Permafrost and Where Does It Occur?
  • CWhat Types of Lakes Were Associated with Glacial Times?
  • 14.7 What Is the Evidence for Past Glaciations?
  • AWhat Features Indicate the Former Presence of Glaciers?
  • BHow Do We Determine Where and When the Most Recent Ice Age Occurred?
  • 14.8 What Happened During Past Ice Ages?
  • AWhat Parts of the Earth Were Covered with Ice During the Ice Age?
  • BWhat Parts of North America Were Covered by Ice and When Did the Ice Retreat?
  • CWhat Record Did Past Glaciations Leave in the Northern United States?
  • 14.9 What Starts and Stops Glaciations?
  • AWhat Variations in Earth’s Tilt and Orbit Influence Global Climate?
  • BCan Variations in Solar Heating and Atmospheric Composition Influence the Intensity of a Glacial Episode?
  • CWhat Is the Role of Ocean Currents and Continental Positions in Glaciations?
  • 14.10 What Processes Occur Along Coasts?
  • AWhat Types of Processes Affect Coasts?
  • BWhat Factors Affect the Appearance of a Coast?
  • 14.11 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides?
  • AWhat Are High and Low Tides?
  • BWhat Causes High and Low Tides?
  • CWhy Are Some High Tides Higher Than Others?
  • 14.12 How Do Waves Form and Propagate?
  • AWhat Is an Ocean Wave and How Is the Size of a Wave Described?
  • BHow Do Waves Propagate Across the Water?
  • CHow Do Waves Form and What Happens When They Reach Shallow Water?
  • 14.13 How Is Material Eroded, Transported, and Deposited Along Coasts?
  • AHow Do Waves Erode Materials Along the Coast?
  • BHow Does the Shape of a Coast Influence Wave-Related Erosion?
  • CHow Do Sand and Other Sediment Get Moved on a Beach?
  • DWhat Determines Whether a Coast Gains or Loses Sand with Time?
  • 14.14 What Landforms Occur Along Coasts?
  • AWhat Coastal Features Are Carved by Erosion?
  • BWhat Coastal Features Result from Deposition?
  • 14.15 What Happens When Sea Level Changes?
  • AWhat Features Form if Sea Level Rises Relative to the Land?
  • BWhat Features Form if Sea Level Falls Relative to the Land?
  • 14.16 What Causes Changes in Sea Level?
  • AHow Does Continental Glaciation Affect Sea Level?
  • BHow Do Changes in the Rate of Seafloor Spreading Affect Sea Level?
  • CHow Do Changes in Ocean Temperatures Cause Sea Level to Rise and Fall?
  • DHow Does the Position of the Continents Influence Global Sea Level?
  • EHow Do Loading and Unloading Affect Land Elevations Relative to Sea Level?
  • 14.17 What Are Some Challenges of Living Along Coasts?
  • AWhat Hazards Exist Along Coasts?
  • BWhat Approaches Have Been Attempted to Address Coastal Problems?
  • 14.18 How Do We Assess the Relative Risks of Different Stretches of Coastline?
  • AWhat Field Studies Do We Conduct in the Coastal Zone?
  • BWhat Can New High-Resolution Elevation Data Tell Us About Coastlines?
  • 14.19 What Would Happen to Sea Level if the Ice in West Antarctica Melted?
  • AWhat Is the Setting of Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Ice Shelves in West Antarctica?
  • BWhat Could Happen to West Antarctica if Global Sea Levels Rise?
  • CHow Do We Calculate the Rise in Sea Level if West Antarctica’s Ice Melts?
  • DWhat Impact Would Raised Sea Levels Have on the East Coast?
  • 14.20 What Is Happening Along the Coast of This Island?
  • Chapter 15: Weathering, Soil, and Unstable Slopes
  • Introduction
  • 15.1 What Physical Processes Affect Earth Materials Near the Surface?
  • AWhat Is the Role of Joints in Weathering?
  • BHow Are Joints Expressed in the Landscape?
  • CWhat Other Physical Processes Loosen Rocks and Other Earth Materials?
  • DHow Does Fracturing a Rock Affect Weathering?
  • 15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect Earth Materials Near the Surface?
  • AHow Does Changing a Rock’s Environment Promote Weathering?
  • BWhat Happens When Rocks Dissolve?
  • CWhat Happens When Earth Materials Oxidize Near Earth’s Surface?
  • DWhat Happens When Minerals Chemically React with Water?
  • EHow Does Weathering Make the Ocean Salty?
  • 15.3 How Does the Type of Earth Material Influence Weathering?
  • AWhat Controls How Different Minerals Weather?
  • BHow Do Different Rocks Respond to Weathering?
  • CHow Does the Character of a Rock Influence Weathering?
  • 15.4 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation, and Time Influence Weathering?
  • AHow Does Climate Influence Weathering?
  • BHow Does Slope Influence Weathering?
  • CHow Does Vegetation Influence Weathering?
  • DHow Does Time Influence Weathering?
  • 15.5 How Is Weathering Expressed?
  • AWhy Does Weathering Produce Rounded Features?
  • BHow Is Spheroidal Weathering Expressed in the Landscapes?
  • CHow Is Weathering Expressed in Your Town and Backyard?
  • 15.6 How Do Caves Form?
  • AHow Do Limestone Caves Form?
  • BWhat Are Some Other Types of Caves?
  • CWhat Features Are Associated with Caves?
  • 15.7 What Is Karst Topography?
  • AWhat Are the Characteristics of Karst Topography?
  • BWhat Is the Distribution of Karst?
  • 15.8 How Does Soil Form?
  • AWhat Is Soil?
  • BWhat Processes Occur During Soil Formation?
  • CWhat Soil Profiles Are Typical for Different Climates?
  • 15.9 Why Is Soil Important to Society?
  • AHow Do Soil and Vegetation Interact?
  • BWhat Activities Threaten Soil?
  • CWhat Are Some Problems Related to Soil?
  • 15.10 What Controls the Stability of Slopes?
  • AHow Does Gravity Affect Slope Stability?
  • BHow Steep Can a Slope Be and Still Remain Stable?
  • CWhat Factors Control Slope Stability?
  • DWhat Triggers Slope Failure?
  • 15.11 How Do Slopes Fail?
  • AWhat Are Some Ways That Slopes Fail?
  • BHow Are Slope Failures Classified?
  • 15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide?
  • AWhat Happens When Rocks Fall or Slide?
  • BWhat Is the Geometry of a Rock Slide?
  • 15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes?
  • 15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.?
  • AWhere and How Have Large Slope Failures Affected the United States?
  • BWhat Is the Potential for Landslides and Debris Flows in the United States?
  • 15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and Assess the Risk for Future Events?
  • AHow Do We Recognize and Monitor Active or Recent Slope Failures?
  • BHow Do We Recognize Prehistoric Slope Failures?
  • CHow Do We Assess an Area’s Potential for Slope Failure?
  • 15.16 What Is Happening with the Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado?
  • AWhat Is the Setting and Morphology of the Slumgullion Landslide?
  • BWhat Structures and Other Features Are Associated with the Landslide?
  • CWhat Other Studies Did Geologists Do to Understand the Landslide?
  • 15.17 Which Areas Have the Highest Risk of Slope Failure?
  • Chapter 16: Streams and Flooding
  • Introduction
  • 16.1 What Is a Drainage Network?
  • AWhat Is a Stream?
  • BWhere Does a Stream Get Its Water?
  • CWhat Are Tributaries and Drainage Networks?
  • DHow Does Geology Influence Drainage Patterns?
  • 16.2 How Do Streams Transport Sediment and Erode Their Channels?
  • AHow Is Material Transported and Deposited in Streambeds?
  • BWhat Processes Erode Material in Streams?
  • CHow Does Turbulence in Flowing Water Affect Erosion and Deposition?
  • DHow Do Erosion and Deposition Occur in Streams Confined Within Bedrock?
  • 16.3 How Do Stream Systems Change Downstream or Over Short Time Frames?
  • AHow Do Stream Systems Change Downstream?
  • BWhat Is the Relationship Between Water Flow and Transported Sediment?
  • CHow Does Stream Behavior Vary Over Time?
  • 16.4 What Factors Influence Profiles of Streams?
  • AWhat Is the Shape of a Stream’s Profile?
  • BWhat Controls the Profiles of Streams?
  • CWhat Factors Influence or Change Stream Profiles?
  • 16.5 Why Do Streams Have Curves?
  • AWhat Is the Shape of Stream Channels in Map View?
  • BWhat Processes Operate When a Stream Meanders?
  • CHow Do Meanders Form and Migrate?
  • 16.6 What Happens in the Headwaters of Streams?
  • AHow Do Streams Start?
  • BWhat Landforms Characterize the Headwaters of Mountain Streams?
  • CHow Do Rapids and Waterfalls Form?
  • DWhat Features Develop When a Stream Exits from the Mountains?
  • 16.7 What Features Characterize Braided Streams?
  • AWhat Conditions Lead to Braided Streams?
  • BWhat Type of Sediment Does a Braided Stream Deposit?
  • 16.8 What Features Characterize Low-Gradient Streams?
  • AWhat Landforms Typify Streams with Low Gradients?
  • 16.9 What Happens When a Stream Reaches Its Base Level?
  • AWhat Happens as a Stream Approaches Base Level?
  • BWhat Controls the Deposition of Sediment in a Delta?
  • CWhat Are the Depositional and Erosional Consequences of Dams?
  • 16.10 How Do Streams Change Over Time?
  • AHow Old Are Streams?
  • BHow Do Stream Systems Respond to Changing Conditions?
  • 16.11 What Happens During Stream Incision?
  • AHow Are Stream Terraces Formed?
  • BHow Are Entrenched Meanders Formed?
  • 16.12 How Do Natural Bridges and Arches Form?
  • AHow Do Natural Bridges Form?
  • BHow Do Natural Arches Form?
  • 16.13 What Is and What Is Not a Flood?
  • AWhat Is the Difference Between a Flood and a Normal Flow Event?
  • BWhat Are the Causes of Flooding?
  • 16.14 What Were Some Devastating Floods?
  • AWhat Happened During the 1993 Upper Mississippi River Flood?
  • BWhat Conditions Caused the Big Thompson River Flood in 1976?
  • CWhat Were Some Other Notable Floods?
  • 16.15 How Do We Measure Floods?
  • AHow Is Stream Flow Measured?
  • BWhat Is the Probability That a Flood Will Occur?
  • 16.16 How Does the Colorado River Change as It Flows Across the Landscape?
  • 16.17 How Would Flooding Affect This Place?
  • Chapter 17: Water Resources
  • Introduction
  • 17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet?
  • AWhere Did Earth’s Water Come from and Where Does It Occur Today?
  • BHow Does Water Move from One Setting to Another?
  • 17.2 How Do We Use Fresh Water?
  • AWhat Are the Main Ways in Which We Use Fresh Water?
  • BHow Do We Use and Store Surface Water?
  • CHow Do We Refer to Volumes of Water?
  • 17.3 Where Is Groundwater Found?
  • AWhat Is Groundwater?
  • BHow Does Groundwater Accumulate?
  • CWhat Controls How Water Flows Through Rocks?
  • 17.4 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow?
  • AWhat Is the Geometry of the Water Table?
  • BWhat Controls the Rate of Groundwater Flow?
  • CWhat Is an Aquifer?
  • DHow Are Wells Related to the Water Table?
  • 17.5 What Is the Relationship Between Surface Water and Groundwater?
  • AHow Does Water Move Between the Surface and Subsurface?
  • BWhat Causes Groundwater to Emerge as a Spring?
  • CHow Are Lakes Related to Groundwater?
  • DHow Do Streams Interact with the Water Table?
  • 17.6 How Do We Explore for Groundwater?
  • AWhat Kinds of Information Are Used to Investigate Groundwater?
  • BHow Do Hydrogeologists Depict the Water Table?
  • 17.7 What Problems Are Associated with Groundwater Pumping?
  • AWhat Happens to the Water Table if Groundwater Is Overpumped?
  • BWhat Problems Are Caused by Excessive Groundwater Withdrawal?
  • CHow Can Groundwater Pumping Cause Saltwater Incursion into Coastal Wells?
  • 17.8 How Can Water Become Contaminated?
  • 17.9 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move and How Do We Clean It Up?
  • AHow Does Contamination Move in Groundwater?
  • BHow Do We Investigate Groundwater Contamination?
  • CHow Is Groundwater Contamination Tracked and Remediated?
  • 17.10 What Is Going On with the Ogallala Aquifer?
  • AWhat Is the Setting of the Ogallala Aquifer?
  • BWhere Does Groundwater in the Aquifer Come from and How Is It Used?
  • CHow Has Overpumping Affected Water Levels in the Ogallala Aquifer?
  • 17.11 Who Polluted Surface Water and Groundwater in This Place?
  • Chapter 18: Energy and Mineral Resources
  • Introduction
  • 18.1 How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form?
  • AWhat Is Petroleum and Where Does It Come From?
  • BWhat Processes Turn Organic Material into Oil and Gas?
  • CWhere Do Oil and Gas Go?
  • 18.2 In What Settings Are Oil and Gas Trapped?
  • AHow Do Folded Layers Trap Oil and Gas?
  • BHow Do Salt Domes Help Trap Oil and Gas?
  • CWhat Are Other Ways That Petroleum Can Be Trapped?
  • 18.3 What Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil?
  • AWhere Do Oil and Gas Reside in Conventional and Unconventional Resources?
  • BHow Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil Extracted by Hydraulic Fracturing?
  • CWhat Are the Geologic Settings of Shale Gas and Shale Oil?
  • 18.4 How Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Form?
  • AHow Does Coal Form?
  • BHow Is Coal Mined, Transported, and Used?
  • 18.5 What Are Other Types of Hydrocarbons?
  • AWhere Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Occur, and How Is Methane Extracted?
  • BWhat Is Gas Hydrate and Where Does It Occur?
  • CWhat Is Oil Shale and Where Is It Found?
  • DWhat Is Oil Sand and Where Are the Largest Deposits?
  • 18.6 How Do We Explore for Fossil Fuels?
  • AHow Do We Identify Regions That Are Favorable for Fossil Fuels?
  • BWhat Studies Do Geoscientists Conduct When Exploring for Fossil Fuels?
  • CHow Do We Determine What Is in the Subsurface?
  • DWhat Tools Do Geoscientists Use to Visualize Subsurface Geology?
  • 18.7 How Is Nuclear Energy Produced?
  • AHow Does Nuclear Fission Produce Energy?
  • BIn What Settings Do Uranium Deposits Form?
  • cHow Is Uranium Used to Generate Electricity?
  • DWhat Are Some Environmental Issues Associated with Nuclear Energy?
  • 18.8 How Is Water Used to Generate Electricity?
  • AHow Is Electricity Generated by Hydroelectric Dams?
  • BHow Is Electricity Generated from Ocean Tides and Currents?
  • 18.9 What Are Alternative Energy Sources?
  • AWhat Is Geothermal Energy and What Sites Are Most Favorable for Its Use?
  • BHow Is Electricity Produced from the Wind?
  • CHow Is Solar Energy Used?
  • DWhat Are Some Other Alternative Sources of Energy?
  • 18.10 What Are Mineral Deposits and How Do They Form?
  • AWhat Is a Mineral Deposit and What Is an Ore?
  • BWhat Determines Whether a Mineral or Rock Is an Ore?
  • CWhat Processes Can Form a Mineral Deposit?
  • 18.11 How Do Precious Metal Deposits Form?
  • AIn What Settings Do Gold- and Silver-Rich Mineral Deposits Form?
  • BWhat Parts of the United States Have Large Gold Deposits?
  • CWhere Does Platinum Occur?
  • 18.12 How Do Base Metal Deposits Form?
  • AHow Do Iron Deposits Form?
  • BHow Do Most Copper Deposits Form?
  • CWhat Happens When a Copper Deposit Is Weathered?
  • DWhat Are Some Other Ways in Which Base Metal Deposits Form?
  • 18.13 How Do We Explore for Mineral Deposits?
  • AHow Do Field Geologists Explore for Mineral Deposits?
  • BHow Do Geologists Use Plate Tectonics to Explore for Ore Deposits?
  • CHow Do We Find Buried Mineral Deposits?
  • DHow Are Mineral Deposits Extracted and Processed?
  • 18.14 Why Are Industrial Rocks and Minerals So Important to Society?
  • AHow Are Cement and Concrete Produced?
  • BWhere Do Sheetrock and Plaster Come From?
  • CHow Do We Use Sand, Gravel, and Crushed Rock?
  • DWhat Are Some Other Important Industrial Rocks and Minerals?
  • 18.15 Why Is Wyoming So Rich in Energy Resources?
  • AWhat Is the Geology of Wyoming?
  • BWhat Is the Geologic Setting of Wyoming’s Natural Resources?
  • 18.16 Where Would You Explore for Fossil Fuels in This Place?
  • Chapter 19: Geology of the Solar System
  • Introduction
  • 19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons?
  • AWhat Can We Observe with Telescopes on Earth and in Earth Orbit?
  • BWhat Do Radar Observations Tell Us About a Planetary Surface?
  • CHow Can We Remotely Observe Temperature and Composition of Surfaces?
  • DHow Have We Explored the Surfaces of the Moon and Some Planets?
  • 19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different?
  • AWhat Determines the Kinds of Materials and Features on a Planet or Moon?
  • BHow Are Impact Craters Formed?
  • CWhat Determines Whether an Object Has Active Tectonics and Volcanism?
  • DHow Can Water and Wind Modify a Planet’s Surface?
  • 19.3 What Is the Geology of the Inner Planets?
  • AWhat Is on the Surface of Mercury, the Closest Planet to the Sun?
  • BWhat Is Beneath the Atmospheric Shroud of Venus?
  • CWhat Makes Earth Unique?
  • DWhat Is on the Surface of Mars, the Red Planet?
  • 19.4 What Is the Geology of Our Moon?
  • AWhat Are the Main Geologic Features of the Moon?
  • BWhat Other Features Are Observed on the Moon?
  • CWhat Causes the Phases of the Moon?
  • 19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons?
  • 19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons?
  • 19.7 What Is the Geology of the Outer Planets and Their Moons?
  • AWhat Features Characterize Uranus and Its Unusual Moons?
  • BWhat Is the Geology of Neptune and Its Moon, Triton?
  • CWhat Do We Know About Pluto and Its Companions?
  • 19.8 What Have We Learned About Mars
  • AWhat Have We Learned from Instruments Orbiting Mars?
  • BWhat Have We Learned from Landers and Rovers on Mars?
  • 19.9 How and When Did Geologic Features on This Alien World Form?
  • Appendix: Quantitative and Spatial Skills
  • Appendix
  • 1.4Q What Units Describe Matter, Energy, and Motion?
  • AWhat Official Units Are Commonly Used in the Sciences?
  • BHow Do We Convert Between Units Commonly Used in the Sciences?
  • CWhat Units Are Derived from the Fundamental SI Units?
  • 2.4Q How Can We Express Very Large and Very Small Numbers More Efficiently?
  • AHow Can We Convey Large and Small Quantities?
  • BHow Do We Use Scientific Notation to Display Numbers?
  • 3.3Q How Can We Explore the Spatial Distribution of Various Types of Geologic and Geographic Data?
  • 3.9Q How Do We Calculate the Rate of Seafloor Spreading from the Age of the Seafloor?
  • 5.5Q How Do We Plot and Read Graphs to Explore Scientific Questions?
  • 8.4Q How Does Sketching Landscapes Help Us Better Observe and Understand Geology?
  • 12.6Q How Do We Use Reports of Intensity to Investigate the Location of Historic Earthquakes?
  • 13.1Q How Are Temperature, Pressure, and Density of a Gas Related Mathematically?
  • AHow Does Charles’s Law Mathematically Relate Volume and Temperature?
  • BHow Does Boyle’s Law Relate Pressure and Volume?
  • CHow Does the Ideal Gas Law Relate Pressure, Temperature, and Density?
  • DHow Can We Use the Ideal Gas Law to Study the Atmosphere?
  • 13.2Q Why Does the Strength of the Coriolis Effect Vary?
  • 13.4Q What Can We Learn from Weather Maps?
  • 16.1Q How Do We Construct a Hydrograph?
  • 16.3Q How Do We Calculate Gradients for Different Segments of a Stream?
  • 16.15Q How Can We Estimate the Frequency of Flooding?
  • AHow Do We Estimate the Likelihood That a Flood of a Specific Size Will Occur?
  • 17.4Q Why and How Fast Does Groundwater Flow?
  • 17.6Q How Do We Contour a Collection of Data Points?
  • AWhat Are Some Strategies in Hand-Contouring Data?
  • Glossary
  • Glossary
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  • Credits
  • Credits
  • FRONTMATTER AND DESIGN ELEMENT CREDITS
  • CHAPTER 1
  • CHAPTER 2
  • CHAPTER 3
  • CHAPTER 4
  • CHAPTER 5
  • CHAPTER 6
  • CHAPTER 7
  • CHAPTER 8
  • CHAPTER 9
  • CHAPTER 10
  • CHAPTER 11
  • CHAPTER 12
  • CHAPTER 13
  • CHAPTER 14
  • CHAPTER 15
  • CHAPTER 16
  • CHAPTER 17
  • CHAPTER 18
  • CHAPTER 19
  • APPENDIX
  • Index
  • Index
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  • Tapestry of Time Map of North America
  • Tapestry of Time Map of North America
  • Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images
  • What Controls the Distribution of Natural Resources? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • How Do Continents Differ from Ocean Basins? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • Figure 1.3 Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • How Do Forces and Processes Affect Earth? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • Figure 1.6 Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • What Are Some Strategies for Observing Landscapes? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • What Is Above, At, and Below Earth’s Surface? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • What Is the Setting of the Black Hills? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • What Geologic Processes Affect the Rapid City Area? Text Alternative (Chapter 1)
  • OUR WORLD IS FULL OF GEOLOGIC MYSTERIES Text Alternative (Chapter 2)
  • Satellite image Text Alternative (Chapter 2)
  • How Do We Represent Geologic Features in the Subsurface? Text Alternative (Chapter 2)
  • Fossils, Numeric Ages, and the Geologic Timescale Text Alternative (Chapter 2)
  • Figure 2.7 Text Alternative (Chapter 2)
  • Cross Section Text Alternative (Chapter 2)
  • Figure 3.4 Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • Convergent Boundary Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • Where Are the Three Types of Plate Boundaries? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • What Happens at Mid-Ocean Ridges? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • What Causes the Pacific Ring of Fire? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • In the Pacific Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • What Are Some Other Types of Transform Boundaries? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • How Fast and in What Directions Do Plates Move Relative to One Another? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • How Do Magnetic Reversals Help Us Infer the Age of Rocks? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • How Are Magnetic Reversals Expressed at Mid-Ocean Ridges, and How Do Magnetic Patterns on the Seafloor Help Us Study Plate Tectonics? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • The magnetic polarity Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • How Does Plate Tectonics Help Explain Island and Seamount Chains? Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • Most island and seamount Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • Figure 3.12 Text Alternative (Chapter 3)
  • 03.03.b4-6 Text Alternative (Chapter 3) Copy
  • What Happens at an Atomic Scale When a Mineral Cleaves? Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • What Happens if All of the Bonds Have the Same Strength? Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • How Are Similar Chemical Elements Grouped in the Periodic Table? Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • What Are the Major Classes of Rock-Forming Minerals? Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Average Abundances in Earth’s Crust Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Average Abundances for the Entire Earth Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Average Abundances for the Universe Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • How Are Minerals Related to Elements and Atoms? Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Covalent Bond Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Ionic Bond Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Metallic Bond Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • The Water Molecule and Its Polarity Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Hydrogen Bonding Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • The Ability of Water to Dissolve Minerals Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • The encircling water molecule Text Alternative (Chapter 4)
  • Igneous Environments Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Pegmatite Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • How Do Mineral Abundances and Igneous Rocks Relate to Our Classification? Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • How Do Pressure and Temperature Change with Depth? Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Melting by Heating Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Melting by Decompression Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Melting by Adding Water Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Cooling History of a Magma Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • How Crystallization Changes the Composition of Magma Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Melting in the Mantle Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Melting in the Crust Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Changes in pressure Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Investigating the Sources of Magma Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • What Are Flood Basalts? Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • How Do Flood Basalts Erupt onto the Surface? Text Alternative (Chapter 5)
  • Some Important Flood Basalts of the World Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • Geologic Studies Before the Eruption Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • What Is a Caldera? Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • How Does a Caldera Form? Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • Could the Yellowstone Caldera Cause a Future Disaster? Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • 06.11.c4 Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
  • 06.11.t1 Text Alternative (Chapter 6)
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  • 08.00.a1 Text Alternative (Chapter 8)
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