Educational Assessment of Students

Höfundar: Susan M. Brookhart; Anthony J. Nitko (Útgáfa: 8)
Educational Assessment of Students

Kaup valmöguleikar

Help pre- and in-service teachers learn to improve their ability to facilitate student learning through better assessment Educational Assessment of Students offers information about the basics of educational measurement and step-by-step instructions on how to use and construct formative and summative assessments for classroom teaching. The text provides complete coverage of educational assessment, including developing plans that integrate teaching and assessment; using formative assessment strategies and providing effective feedback to students; crafting objective, performance, and portfolio assessments; evaluating students and discussing evaluations with parents; and interpreting state-mandated tests and standardized achievement tests.

Also available with MyLab Education MyLab™ is the teaching and learning platform that empowers you to reach every student. By combining trusted author content with digital tools and a flexible platform, MyLab personalizes the learning experience and improves results for each student. MyLab Education helps teacher candidates bridge the gap between theory and practice–better preparing them for success in their future classrooms.

Note: You are purchasing a standalone product; MyLab does not come packaged with this content. Students, if interested in purchasing this title with MyLab Education, ask your instructor to confirm the correct package ISBN and Course ID. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information. If you would like to purchase both the physical text and MyLab Education search for: 0134806972 / 9780134806976 Educational Assessment of Students plus MyLab Education with Pearson eText -- Access Card Package Package consists of:   0134807030 / 9780134807034 MyLab Education with Pearson eText -- Access Card -- for Educational Assessment of Students     0134807073 / 9780134807072 Educational Assessment of Students.

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Útgefandi
Pearson Education (US)
ISBN
9780134807096
Print ISBN
9780134807072
Format
ePub
Útgáfa
8
Höfundar
Susan M. Brookhart; Anthony J. Nitko
Tungumál
English
Útgefið
2018-02-23
Prent takmörkun á líftíma
100
Prent takmörkun
2
Afritunar takmörkun
2

Kaflar

  • Educational Assessment of Students
  • Educational Assessment of Students
  • About the Authors
  • Brief Contents
  • Contents
  • Preface
  • New and Revised Content
  • Special Features
  • Educational Assessment of Students
  • Part I The Bases for Assessment
  • Chapter 1 Classroom Decision Making and Using Assessment
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • What Is Assessment?
  • Assessment
  • Guidelines for Selecting and Using Classroom Assessments
  • Tests
  • Measurement
  • Evaluation
  • Evaluation of Schools, Programs, or Materials
  • Evaluation of Students
  • Assessment and Classroom Decisions
  • Assessment and Educational Decisions About Students
  • Instructional Decisions
  • Decisions Before Beginning Teaching
  • Decisions During Teaching
  • Decisions After a Teaching Segment
  • Instructional Diagnosis and Remediation
  • Feedback to Students
  • Feedback to the Teacher
  • Modeling Learning Expectations
  • Motivating Students
  • Assigning Grades to Students
  • Selection Decisions
  • Placement Decisions
  • Classification Decisions
  • Counseling and Guidance Decisions
  • Credentialing and Certification Decisions
  • Data Driven Decision Making
  • High-Stakes Assessment and Accountability
  • High-Stakes Testing
  • High-Stakes Testing
  • Example 1.
  • Example 2.
  • Example 3.
  • Accountability Testing
  • Federal Legislation
  • Standards-Based Proficiency Requirements
  • High-Stakes Sanctions
  • Disaggregation
  • Assessment of Students with Disabilities
  • Issues in the Current Accountability Climate
  • Assessment Literacy
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 2 Describing the Goals of Instruction
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Importance of Specifying Learning Outcomes
  • Educational Goals, State Standards, and Learning Objectives
  • Educational Goals Versus Specific Learning Objectives
  • State Standards
  • Common Core State Standards
  • Deriving Learning Goals and Instructional Objectives from State Standards
  • General Learning Goals Versus Specific Learning Objectives
  • Evaluating the Learning Objectives of a Course or Unit
  • How to Write Specific Learning Objectives
  • Student Centered
  • Performance Centered
  • Content Oriented
  • Specific Learning Objectives as Mastery Statements
  • Mastery Learning Objectives Versus Developmental Learning Objectives
  • The Problem of a Broad, Heterogeneous Domain
  • The Issue of Continuous Development of Skill
  • Teaching and Assessing Developmental Learning Objectives
  • Aligning Assessment Tasks with Learning Objectives
  • Aligning Assessments to Mastery Learning Objectives
  • Aligning Assessments to Developmental Learning Objectives
  • Aligning Assessments to State Standards
  • Creating Assessments That Require Students to Use Combinations of Learning Objectives
  • Sources for Locating Learning Objectives
  • Taxonomies of Learning Objectives
  • Cognitive Domain Taxonomies
  • Bloom’s Taxonomy
  • Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
  • Relationship of the Revision to the Original
  • The Taxonomy Table
  • Classifying Learning Objectives and Assessment Items
  • Advantage of the Revised Taxonomy
  • Different Modes of Assessments for Different Taxonomy Levels
  • Condensing the Taxonomy
  • Webb’s Depth of Knowledge Levels
  • Choosing a Taxonomy
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 3 Validity of Assessment Results
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • General Nature of Validity
  • Four Principles for Validation
  • Appropriate Interpretations
  • Appropriate Uses
  • Appropriate Values
  • Appropriate Consequences
  • Validity of Teacher-Made Classroom Assessment Results
  • Content Representativeness and Relevance
  • Thinking Processes and Skills Represented
  • Consistency with Other Classroom Assessments
  • Reliability and Objectivity
  • Fairness to Different Types of Students
  • Economy, Efficiency, Practicality, Instructional Features
  • Multiple-Assessment Usage
  • Positive Consequences for Learning
  • Validity of Large-Scale Assessment Results
  • Construct an Argument for Validity, Supported by Evidence
  • Content Representativeness and Relevance: Content Evidence
  • Domain Definition
  • Table of Specifications
  • Curricular Relevance and Content Domains
  • Alignment of State Standards and Accountability Tests
  • Thinking Skills and Processes: Substantive Evidence
  • Relationships Among Parts of Assessment: Internal Structure Evidence
  • Relationships of Results to Other Variables: External Structure Evidence
  • Correlation Coefficient
  • Students’ Scores on Different Tests
  • Comparing Students’ Rank Orders
  • Scatter Diagrams
  • Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
  • Numerical Values of the Correlation Coefficients for Scores in Figure 3.4
  • Degrees of Relationship
  • Correlation and Causation
  • Correlation Coefficients and Sample Sizes
  • Factors That Raise or Lower Correlation Coefficients
  • Validity Coefficients
  • Expectancy Tables
  • The Criterion
  • Kinds of Criteria
  • Judging the Worth of Criteria
  • Low Criterion Reliability Limits Validity
  • Systematic Errors
  • Practical Considerations
  • Reliability over Time, Assessors, and Content Domains: Reliability Evidence
  • Generalization of Interpretation over People, Conditions, or Special Instructions and Interventions: Generalization Evidence
  • Intended and Unintended Consequences: Consequential Evidence
  • Cost, Efficiency, Practicality, and Instructional Features: Practicality Evidence
  • Validity Issues When Accommodating Students with Disabilities
  • Validity of Scores from Test Accommodations
  • How Should Accommodated Norm-Referenced Scores Be Reported?
  • How Should Accommodated Criterion- Referenced Scores Be Reported?
  • Measurement Perspective on Accommodations and Modifications
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 4 Reliability of Assessment Results
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • General Nature of Reliability
  • Reliability Is Necessary but Not Sufficient for Validity
  • Causes of Measurement Error or Inconsistency
  • Reliability of Classroom Assessments
  • Objective Tests
  • Essays, Papers, and Projects Scored with Rubrics
  • Grades
  • Makeup Work
  • Oral Questioning and Observations
  • Peer Editing, Group Collaboration Ratings, and Other Peer Assessment Techniques
  • Self-Assessment
  • Reliability of Large-Scale Assessments
  • Quantifying the Consistency of Assessment Results
  • Overview of Reliability Coefficients
  • Estimating Reliability over Time
  • Test-Retest Reliability
  • Alternate-Forms Reliability (with Time Interval)
  • Estimating Reliability on a Single Occasion
  • Alternate-Forms Reliability (No Time Interval)
  • Parallel Forms Do Not Always Exist
  • Split-Halves Reliability Coefficients
  • Spearman-Brown Double Length Formula
  • Kuder-Richardson Reliability Coefficients
  • Estimating Inter-Rater Reliability
  • Correlating Raters’ Scores
  • Percentage Agreement
  • Obtained Scores, True Scores, and Error Scores
  • Standard Error of Measurement
  • Defining the Standard Error of Measurement
  • Reliability Coefficients and SEMs
  • Using the SEM to Set Score Bands
  • Uncertainty Interval for One Student’s Score
  • Using SEM to Interpret the Difference Between Two Scores
  • Using SEM to Interpret the Difference Between Two Students’ Scores
  • Interpreting the Difference Between School-Level Scores
  • Reliability of Mastery and Pass-Fail Decisions
  • Error of Classification
  • Percentage Agreement
  • Factors Affecting Reliability and SEM and How to Improve Reliability
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 5 Professional Responsibilities, Ethical Behavior, and Legal Requirements in Educational Assessments
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • A Teacher’s Professional Responsibilities in Assessment
  • Responsibility to Use Quality Information to Make Decisions
  • Six Categories of Responsibility for Teachers
  • Responsibilities When Creating Assessments
  • General Responsibilities
  • Specific Responsibilities
  • Responsibilities When Choosing Assessments
  • Choosing Assessments for Classroom Use
  • Serving on Assessment Selection Committees
  • Responsibilities When Administering Assessments
  • Give Students Sufficient Information
  • Conduct the Administration Professionally
  • Accommodate Students with Disabilities
  • Standardized and Mandated Tests
  • Legally Defensible Assessment Accommodation Policies
  • Responsibilities When Scoring Assessments
  • Your Own Classroom Assessments
  • Standardized and Mandated Tests
  • Responsibilities When Interpreting and Using Assessment Results
  • Results from Your Own Assessments
  • Standardized and Mandated Test Results
  • Responsibilities When Communicating Assessment Results
  • Students’ Rights and Responsbilities As Test-Takers
  • Secrecy, Access, Privacy, Confidentiality, and the Teacher
  • Secrecy and Access
  • Purging and Correcting School Records
  • Privacy, Confidentiality, and the Teacher
  • Access to Student Data for Research Purposes
  • Informed Consent
  • Testing Challenged in Court
  • Psychometric Issues Presented in Court
  • Nonpsychometric Issues Presented in Court
  • Bias in Educational Assessment
  • Definitions of Bias
  • Assessment Bias as Mean Differences
  • Assessment Bias as Differential Item Functioning (DIF)
  • Assessment Bias as Misinterpretation of Scores
  • Assessment Bias as Sexist and Racist Content: Facial Bias
  • Assessment Bias as Differential Validity
  • Assessment Bias as Content and Experience Differential
  • Assessment Bias as the Statistical Model Used for Selection Decisions
  • Assessment Bias as the Wrong Criterion Measure
  • Bias Stemming from the Atmosphere and Conditions of Assessment
  • Possible Future Directions of Test Fairness
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Part II Crafting and Using Classroom Assessments
  • Chapter 6 Planning for Integrating Assessment and Instruction
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Assessment Planning for a Marking Period
  • Example of How to Develop an Assessment Plan for a Marking Period
  • Assessment Planning for One Unit of Instruction
  • Example of an Assessment Plan for One Unit
  • Preassessment to Plan Your Teaching
  • Importance of Preinstructional Unit Assessment
  • A Framework for Constructing Instruments
  • Pretesting for Metacognition Skills
  • Planning for One Summative Assessment
  • Organizing a Blueprint
  • Accommodations to the Summative Assessment
  • Improving the Validity of Assessment Plans
  • Matching Assessment Tasks to Learning Objectives
  • Using Appropriate Multiple Assessment Task Formats
  • Making Assessments Understandable to Students
  • Satisfying Appropriate Validity Criteria
  • Satisfying Appropriate Reliability Criteria
  • Ensuring Equivalence
  • What Range of Assessment Options Is Available?
  • Formative Assessment Options
  • Oral Assessment Techniques
  • Paper-and-Pencil Assessment Techniques
  • Portfolios
  • Interviews
  • Summative Assessment Options
  • Teacher-Made Assessments
  • External (Extra-Classroom) Assessments
  • Standardized Achievement Test
  • Differentiating Instruction
  • Assessment Planning for Response to Intervention
  • Using Technology as an AID in Assessment
  • Technology to Support Routine Assessment Tasks
  • Databases of Assessment Tasks
  • Analysis Tools
  • Using Technology to Create New Learning and Assessment Networks
  • Using Collaborative Technologies
  • Using Technology to Make Tests More Accessible to Students with Disabilities
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 7 Diagnostic and Formative Assessments
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Diagnostic Assessment
  • Approach 1: Profiling Content Strengths and Weaknesses
  • Strengths
  • Weaknesses
  • Approach 2: Identifying Prerequisite Deficits
  • Strengths
  • Weaknesses
  • Approach 3: Identifying Objectives Not Mastered
  • Strengths
  • Weaknesses
  • Approach 4: Identifying Students’ Errors
  • Strengths
  • Weaknesses
  • Approach 5: Identifying Student Knowledge Structures
  • Strengths
  • Weaknesses
  • Approach 6: Identifying Competencies for Solving Word Problems
  • Strengths
  • Weaknesses
  • Formative Assessment
  • Strategy 1: Sharing Learning Targets and Criteria for Success
  • Strategy 2: Feedback That Feeds Forward
  • Strategy 3: Student Goal Setting
  • Strategy 4: Student Self-Assessment
  • Strategy 5: Asking Effective Questions
  • Strategy 6: Helping Students Ask Effective Questions
  • Learning Progressions
  • A Coherent Assessment System
  • Systematic Record Keeping
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 8 Providing Formative Feedback
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Types and Characteristics of Feedback
  • Feedback Referencing Schemes
  • Feedback Focus
  • Feedback Function
  • Feedback Methods
  • Feedback Word Choice
  • Effective Feedback
  • Helping Students Use Feedback
  • The Role of Learning Targets in Feedback
  • Immediate Opportunity to Use Feedback
  • The Feedback Environment
  • Differentiating Feedback
  • Feedback for Successful Students
  • Feedback for Struggling Students
  • Feedback for English Language Learners
  • Peer Feedback
  • Feedback From Technology
  • Technology-Assisted Feedback on Students’ Work
  • Feedback in Computer-Based Instruction
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 9 Fill-in-the-Blank and True-False Items
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Three Fundamental Principles for Crafting Assessments
  • Fill-in-the-Blank Items
  • Varieties of Fill-in-the-Blank Formats
  • Usefulness of Fill-in-the-Blank Items
  • Abilities Assessed
  • Strengths and Shortcomings
  • Creating Fill-in-the-Blank Items
  • True-False Items
  • Varieties of True-False Items
  • Advantages and Criticisms of True-False Items
  • Assess More Than Simple Recall
  • Validity of the True-False Item Format
  • Guessing on True-False Items
  • Suggestions for Getting Started
  • Suggestions for Improving True-False Items
  • Creating Multiple True-False Items
  • Format
  • Advantages
  • Limitations
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 10 Multiple-Choice and Matching Exercises
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Items
  • Mapping a Continuum of Proficiency
  • Varieties of Multiple-Choice Items
  • Direct Versus Indirect Assessment
  • Advantages and Criticisms of Multiple-Choice Items
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • When Not to Use Multiple-Choice Items
  • Definite “Don’ts”
  • When You Have a Choice
  • Exceptions
  • Creating Basic Multiple-Choice Items
  • Crafting the Stem of the Item
  • Direct Question Asked or Implied
  • Put Alternatives at the End
  • Control Vocabulary and Sentence Structure
  • Avoid “Window Dressing”
  • Avoid Negatively Worded Stems
  • Avoid Personal Opinions
  • Avoid Textbookish Wording
  • Create Independent Items
  • Definitions Go in the Alternatives
  • Crafting Alternatives or Foils
  • Plausible and Functional Alternatives
  • Homogeneous Alternatives
  • Put Repeated Words in the Stem
  • Consistent, Correct Punctuation
  • Arrangement of the Alternatives
  • Grammatically Correct Relationship to the Stem
  • Overlapping Alternatives
  • Avoid a Collection of True-False Alternatives
  • Avoid “None of the Above”
  • Avoid “All of the Above”
  • Avoid Verbal Clues
  • Avoid Technical and Unfamiliar Wording
  • Do Not Make a Distractor Too Plausible
  • Writing the Correct Alternative
  • Encoding Meaning into Distractor Choices
  • A Checklist for Evaluating Multiple-Choice Items
  • Creating Alternative Varieties of Multiple-Choice Items
  • Greater-Less-Same Items
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Best-Answer Items
  • MODEL U.N. Coming to Town
  • Local Students Represent the United States
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Experiment-Interpretation Items
  • Alternative Format A
  • Alternative Format B
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Statement-and-Comment Items
  • A. Multiple-Choice Version of a Statement-and-Comment Item
  • The Bundle of Sticks—Aesop
  • B. Short-Answer Version of a Statement-and-Comment Item
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Matching Exercises
  • Advantages and Criticisms of Matching Exercises
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Creating Basic Matching Exercises
  • Creating Alternative Varieties of Matching Exercises
  • Masterlist (Keylist) Items
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Tabular (Matrix) Items
  • Scoring
  • Advantages
  • Criticisms
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 11 Higher-Order Thinking, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Assessing Higher-Order Thinking
  • Context-Dependent Item Sets
  • Ability to Use Reference Materials
  • Graphs and Tables
  • Use the Information Below to Answer Questions 1 and 2
  • Maps
  • Advantages and Disadvantages of Context-Dependent Items
  • Advantages
  • Disadvantages
  • Layout
  • Concept Learning
  • What Are Concepts?
  • Strategies for Assessing Concrete Concept Learning
  • Give the Name
  • Discriminate Exemplars from Nonexemplars
  • Produce New Exemplars
  • Performance Assessment for Deeper Understanding
  • Strategies for Assessing Defined Concept Learning
  • Assessing Whether Students’ Thinking Uses Rules
  • Strategies for Assessing Comprehension of Rules and Principles
  • Problem Solving
  • The Nature of Problem Solving
  • Well-Structured and Ill-Structured Problems
  • General Versus Subject-Specific Problem Solving
  • Heuristics for Solving Problems
  • The IDEAL Problem Solver
  • Strategies for Assessing Problem-Solving Skills
  • Critical Thinking
  • Strategies for Assessing Critical-Thinking Abilities
  • Strategies for Assessing Dispositions Toward Critical Thinking
  • Checklists
  • Rating Scales
  • Reading Skills
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 12 Essay Assessment Tasks
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Formats for Essay Items
  • Restricted-Response Varieties
  • Interpretive Material
  • Extended-Response Varieties
  • Writing Assessment
  • Extended-Response Imaginative Prompt
  • Subject-Matter Knowledge Assessment
  • Extended-Response Subject-Matter Essay Prompt
  • Advantages
  • Disadvantages
  • Usefulness of Essay Assessments
  • Abilities and Skills Assessed by Essay Items
  • Influence on Studying Strategies
  • Depth and Breadth of Content Sampling
  • Influence of Scoring Criteria and Exemplars
  • Constructing Essays Assessing Subject-Matter Learning
  • Case Study of a Poorly Written Essay Item
  • The Poor Item
  • Tenth-Grade Learning Objective to Be Assessed
  • A Poorly Crafted Essay Item
  • Evaluation Using the Checklist
  • The Revised Item
  • An Improved Essay Task
  • Discussion of the Checklist
  • Optional Questions
  • Constructing Prompts for Assessing Writing Achievement
  • General Suggestions for Integrating Writing Assessment and Instruction
  • Focus on the Characteristics of Good Writing
  • Teach Students What Good Writing Is
  • Define Standards or Levels of Achievement for Each Writing Trait
  • Crafting Writing Prompts
  • Writing Prompts for Different Genres
  • Narrative Prompt
  • Imaginative Prompt
  • Expository Prompt
  • Persuasive Prompt
  • Additional Suggestions for Writing Prompts
  • Scoring Essay Assessments
  • Suggestions for Scoring Essay Test Questions
  • Use a Scoring Guide
  • Score One Question at a Time
  • Score Subject-Matter Correctness Separately from Other Factors
  • Score Essays Anonymously
  • Give Students Feedback
  • Independent Scoring
  • Scoring Reliability
  • Inconsistent Standards
  • Rater Drift
  • Changes in the Topic and Prompt
  • Halo Effect
  • Carryover Effect
  • Writing Assessment and Technology
  • Changes in Writing Because of Technology
  • Automated Essay Scoring
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 13 Performance and Portfolio Assessments
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Performance Assessment
  • Types of Performance Assessments
  • Structured, On-Demand Tasks
  • Paper-and-Pencil Tasks
  • Tasks Requiring Other Equipment and Resources
  • Demonstrations
  • Naturally Occurring or Typical Performance Tasks
  • Longer-Term Projects
  • Experiments
  • Oral Presentations and Dramatizations
  • Simulations
  • Computerized Simulations
  • Computerized Adaptive Scenarios
  • Advantages and Criticisms of Performance Assessments
  • Advantages of Performance Assessment
  • Disadvantages of Performance Assessments
  • Designing Performance Assessments
  • Step One: Be Clear About the Performance to Assess
  • Identify Objectives to Be Assessed
  • Identify Criteria for Assessment
  • Define Quality Levels
  • Decide Whether to Assess a Process, a Product, or Both
  • Step Two: Design the Performance Task
  • Create Meaningful Tasks
  • Things to Control to Craft Valid Tasks
  • Time Needed to Complete the Work
  • Task Structure
  • Participation of Groups
  • Product and Process
  • Response Mode
  • Make the Task Clear to Students
  • Number of Tasks
  • Evaluate Your Performance Tasks
  • Step Three: Designing Scoring Schemes
  • Rubrics
  • Criteria
  • Performance-Level Descriptions
  • Designing Scoring Rubrics: The Top-Down Approach
  • Designing Scoring Rubrics: The Bottom-Up Approach
  • Types of Rubrics
  • Analytic Scoring Rubrics
  • Holistic Scoring Rubrics
  • General Rubrics
  • Task-Specific Rubrics
  • Checklists
  • How to Create Checklists
  • Rating Scales
  • Types of Rating Scales
  • Rating Scale Research
  • Scoring Errors
  • Evaluating Scoring Rubrics and Rating Scales
  • Improving Reliability of Rubrics and Ratings
  • Portfolios
  • Growth Portfolios
  • Examples of Growth Portfolios
  • Initial Planning for a Growth Portfolio
  • Students’ Self-Evaluation Entries in Growth Portfolios
  • Best Works Portfolios
  • Examples of Best Works Portfolios
  • Self-Reflection on Portfolio Entries
  • Six Steps for Crafting a Portfolio System
  • Electronic Portfolios
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 14 Preparing Your Students to Be Assessed and Using Students’ Results to Improve Your Assessments
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Preparing Students for Assessment
  • Assess Maximum, Not Typical, Performance in the Classroom
  • Give Students Enough Information Before Assessing Them
  • When an Assessment Will Be Given
  • Pop Quizzes Do Not Assess Maximum Performance
  • Assessment Conditions
  • Explain to Students What the Test Will Include
  • Explain What the Test Will Emphasize
  • Give Opportunity to Practice Expected Performance
  • Tell Students How You Will Score the Test
  • Tell Students How the Test Results Will Be Used
  • Minimum Assessment-Taking Skills
  • Skills You Need to Teach Students
  • Avoid Shortchanging Your Students
  • Testwiseness
  • A Testwiseness Quiz
  • A Taxonomy of Testwiseness Skills
  • Advice About Changing Answers
  • Test Anxiety
  • Nature of Test Anxiety
  • Task-Directed and Task-Irrelevant Thoughts
  • Factors in Test Anxiety
  • Students’ beliefs and judgments about tests
  • Three Types of Test-Anxious Students
  • Helping Test-Anxious Students
  • Assessment Format and Appearance
  • Test Layout and Design
  • Directions to Students
  • Preparations for Scoring the Assessment
  • Scanning the Answer Sheets
  • Correction for Guessing
  • Correction for Guessing Formulas
  • How to apply the correction for guessing correctly score formula
  • How to apply the correction for guessing adjusted score formula
  • Current Practices Among Test Publishers
  • Item Analysis for Classroom Assessments
  • Classroom Uses for Item Analyses
  • Item Analysis of Response-Choice Tests
  • Upper- and Lower-Scoring Groups (Step 3)
  • Summarize Responses to Each Item (Step 4)
  • Compute the Item Difficulty Index (p) (Step 5)
  • Compute the Item Discrimination Index (D) (Step 6)
  • Item Analysis of Constructed-Response and Performance Assessments
  • Compute the Item Difficulty Index (p*)
  • Examples of applying Equation 14.5
  • Compute the Item Discrimination Index (D*)
  • Example of applying Equation 14.6
  • Item Difficulty Index
  • Effect on Test Score Distribution
  • Shape of the Distribution
  • Average or Mean Test Score
  • Spread of Scores
  • Uses of Item Difficulty Information
  • Item Discrimination Index
  • Numerical Limits of D
  • Score Reliability and Item Discrimination Power
  • Improving Multiple-Choice Item Quality
  • Poorly Functioning Distractors
  • Response Patterns for Distractors
  • Subject Matter Has Precedence
  • Ambiguous Alternatives
  • Miskeyed Items
  • Random Guessing
  • Selecting Test Items
  • Purpose of Assessment Helps Select Items
  • Relative Versus Absolute Student Attainment
  • Complete Versus Partial Ordering
  • Realities, Content Coverage, and Compromise
  • Rules of Thumb for Selecting Test Items
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 15 Evaluating and Grading Student Achievement
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • The Meanings and Purposes of Grades
  • What Are Your Attitudes Toward Grades?
  • Continuous Assessment and Grading
  • Formative Assessment
  • Summative Assessment
  • Validity
  • Why Teachers Dislike Grading
  • How People Perceive and Use Grades
  • Reporting Methods
  • Traditional Report Cards
  • Narrative Reports
  • Advantages
  • Limitations
  • Standards-Based Report Cards
  • Advantages
  • Disadvantages
  • Conferences
  • Parent-Teacher Conferences
  • Student-Led Parent Conferences
  • Limitations of Conferences
  • Privacy
  • Choosing a Grading Model
  • Basic Approaches
  • Criterion Referencing: Absolute Standards
  • Norm-Referencing: Relative Standards
  • Self-Referencing: Growth Standards
  • Grading Practices
  • What to Grade
  • Assessment Variables
  • Reporting Variables
  • Grading Variables: Components of the Final Grade
  • Valid Decisions About Component Grades’ Scales and Weights
  • Make Scales Compatible
  • Understand Precision
  • Weight the Components
  • Standards or Boundaries Between Grades
  • Borderline Cases
  • The Meaning of Failure
  • The Deadly Zero
  • Techniques for Combining Grades to Summarize Achievement
  • Assigning Norm-Referenced Letter Grades
  • Grading a Single Test or Assessment
  • Example of one possible set of percentages to use for grading on the curve
  • Example of one possible set of percentages to use for grading using the normal curve with five equal intervals
  • Grading a Composite of Several Scores
  • Weighting Guidelines
  • Example showing how a grading component can work in the opposite way the teacher intends when norm-referenced grading is used
  • Using SS-Score Method
  • Hypothetical example showing using the SS-score method can help the teacher weigh the assignments as intended when norm-referenced grading is used
  • Assigning Criterion-Referenced Letter Grades
  • Grading a Single Test or Assessment: Fixed-Percentage Method
  • Example of one possible set of percentages for grading using the fixed-percentage method
  • Grading a Single Test or Assessment: Total Points Method
  • Example of one possible set of points to use with the total points method of grading
  • Grading a Single Test or Assessment: Quality-Level Method
  • Combining Grades: Fixed-Percentage Method
  • Combining Grades: Total Points Method
  • Combining Grades: Quality-Level Methods
  • Using the Median Score
  • Combining Grades for Standards-Based Grading: Privileging Recent Evidence
  • Using Minimum Attainment
  • Example of the minimum attainment method for grading
  • Example of applying the minimum attainment method for grading in the preceding example to eight students
  • Grading in Early Childhood
  • Gradebook Computer Programs
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Part III Interpreting and Using Standardized Tests
  • Chapter 16 Standardized Achievement Tests
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Overview of Standardized Tests
  • How a Standardized Test Is Developed
  • Universal Design Considerations
  • Technology-Based Assessments and Accommodations
  • Score Reports
  • Varieties of Standardized Tests
  • Commercially Published Achievement Tests
  • Multilevel Survey Batteries
  • Common Features
  • Differences
  • Organization of Batteries
  • Common Learning Outcomes
  • Auxiliary Materials
  • Survey Achievement Battery Selection
  • Complementing Your State Assessment
  • Individually Administered Surveys
  • Multilevel Criterion-Referenced Tests
  • Other Multilevel Tests
  • Single-Level Standardized Tests
  • Federally Mandated State Assessments
  • Commercially Produced Interim and Benchmark Assessments and Services
  • Other Commercially Available Tests
  • Response to Intervention (RTI) Assessments
  • Early Childhood Assessments
  • English Language Proficiency Tests
  • Appropriate Uses of Standardized Test Results
  • Within-Classroom Uses
  • Extraclassroom Uses
  • Inappropriate Uses of Standardized Test Results
  • Criticisms of Standardized Tests
  • Misuses of Standardized Tests
  • How to Administer Standardized Tests
  • The Right Way to Prepare Yourself and Students for a Standardized Test
  • The Right Way to Administer a Standardized Test
  • Ethical and Unethical Student Practice for Standardized Tests
  • A Clearly Unethical Teaching Practice
  • The Range of Ethical to Unethical Practices
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 17 Interpreting Norm-Referenced Scores
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Three Referencing Frameworks
  • Norm-Referencing Framework
  • Norm-Referencing
  • Validity of Norm-Referenced Interpretations
  • Norm-Referenced Scores
  • Criterion-Referencing Framework
  • Beyond Norm-Referencing
  • Criterion-Referencing
  • Validity of Criterion-Referenced Interpretations
  • Criterion-Referenced Scores
  • Standards-Referencing Framework
  • Standards-Referencing
  • Combining Frameworks
  • Reporting Methods
  • Reporting Growth
  • Using Norms
  • Importance of Norms
  • Types of Norm Groups
  • Multiple Norm-Group Comparisons
  • Local Norms
  • National Norms
  • Special Norm Groups
  • School Averages Norms
  • Example of how using the wrong norms may lead to underestimating how well a school is doing
  • Using Publishers’ Norms
  • Know When the Assessment Was Normed
  • Criteria for Evaluating Norms
  • Using Norms Tables
  • Norm-Referenced Scores
  • Percentile Ranks
  • Linear Standard Scores
  • z-Scores
  • Example of calculating a linear z-score using Equation 17.1
  • Example showing how a student’s z-scores remain the same even though the measurement scale changes
  • SS-Scores
  • Example showing how a student’s z-score is transformed into an SS-score
  • Example showing how to interpret a student’s SS-score by converting it back to a z-score
  • Comparison of Linear Standard Scores
  • Example comparing z-scores and SS-scores for the same raw score
  • Normal Distributions
  • Definition
  • Natural Law Versus Normal Distributions
  • Percentile Ranks and z-Scores in a Normal Distribution
  • How to determine the percentile rank corresponding to selected zn-scores in a normal distribution
  • Normalized Standard Scores
  • Normalized z-Scores
  • Illustration of normalized z-scores and (actual) linear z-scores corresponding to the distribution of 25 test scores shown in the previous example in Figure F.8
  • Normalized T-Scores (McCall’s T)
  • Examples of how to interpret T-scores using a normal curve like the one shown in Figure 17.6
  • Deviation IQ Scores
  • The meaning of DIQ-scores
  • Stanines
  • How to interpret stanine scores
  • SAT-Scores
  • Normal Curve Equivalents
  • Correspondences between selected percentile ranks, NCE-scores, and stanines
  • Developmental and Educational Growth Scales
  • Extended Normalized Standard Score Scales
  • Basic Idea of the Extended Normalized Score Scales
  • Development of Extended Score Scales
  • Item Response Theory Method
  • Recommendations
  • Grade-Equivalent Scores
  • Basic Idea of Grade-Equivalent Scores
  • The grade-equivalent score scale layout
  • Overall Usefulness of Grade-Equivalent Scores
  • Development of Grade-Equivalent Scores
  • What to Keep in Mind When Interpreting Grade Equivalents
  • Spring-to-Fall Drops: Summer Losses
  • Grade Equivalents and Curriculum Correspondence
  • Grade Equivalents and Mastery
  • Grade Equivalents and What Was Covered in the Class
  • Grade Equivalents from Different Tests Cannot Be Interchanged
  • Grade Equivalents for Different Subjects Cannot Be Compared
  • “Normal” Growth
  • Unequal Units
  • Grade Mean Equivalents
  • Recommendations
  • Summary of Grade Equivalents
  • General Guidelines for Score Interpretation
  • Types of Questions Parents Ask and Suggested Ways of Answering Them
  • Parent Misunderstandings
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 18 Finding and Evaluating Published Assessments
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Locating a Published Test
  • Locating Published Tests from Print Sources
  • Tests in Print (TIP) IX
  • Tests: A Comprehensive Reference for Assessments in Psychology, Education, and Business (6th ed.)
  • Textbooks on Testing and Measurement
  • Test Publishers’ Catalogs
  • Locating Published Tests Online
  • Buros Test Locator
  • ETS Test Collection
  • Test Publishers’ Websites
  • General Internet Searches
  • Locating Published Tests Through Personal Contacts
  • Professional Contacts and Organizations
  • Testing Specialists in Colleges and Universities
  • Testing Offices in Schools, Colleges, and Universities
  • Promotional Exhibits at Conferences
  • Locating Evaluations of Published Tests
  • Locating Evaluations of Published Tests from Print Sources
  • Mental Measurements Yearbooks (MMYs)
  • Test Critiques (Volumes I–XI)
  • Professional Journals
  • Locating Evaluations of Published Tests Online
  • Locating Evaluations of Published Tests Through Personal Contacts
  • Testing Specialists in Colleges and Universities
  • Testing Offices in Schools, Colleges, and Universities
  • Locating Computerized Testing Materials
  • General Internet Searches
  • Test Publishers’ Websites
  • Locating Unpublished Test Materials
  • Locating Unpublished Tests from Print Sources
  • ETS Test Collection
  • Directory of Unpublished Experimental Mental Measures
  • Locating Unpublished Tests Online
  • Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HAPI)
  • ETS Test Collection
  • General Internet Searches
  • Restrictions on Purchasing and Using Tests
  • Purchasing Restrictions
  • Guidelines for Proper Test Development and Use
  • Test Standards
  • The Code
  • Evaluating and Selecting a Test
  • Clarify Your Purpose
  • Put the New Assessment Plans into Local Context
  • External Assessments Versus Teacher-Made Assessments
  • State-Mandated Assessments Versus Standardized Tests
  • Instructional Value of Standardized Tests
  • Evaluating a School District
  • Qualifications of the Staff
  • Review the Actual Assessment Materials
  • Obtain Copies of the Test to Review
  • Technical Information About a Test’s Quality
  • The Committee Should Review All Materials
  • Achievement Tests Must Match the Curriculum
  • Pilot the Test
  • A Sample Outline for Your Test Review
  • Locating Information About Your State Tests
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Chapter 19 Scholastic Aptitude, Career Interests, Attitudes, and Personality Tests
  • Key Concepts
  • Important Terms
  • Aptitudes for Learning
  • General Versus Specific Intellectual Skills
  • General Intellectual Skills and Aptitudes Measurement
  • Aptitude Tests Measure Learned Behavior
  • Capacity Is Not Fixed
  • Aptitude-Achievement Distinctions
  • Teaching Conditions for Aptitude Development
  • Nonadaptive Teaching
  • Underemphasizing Adaptive Teaching
  • Invalidity for Instructional Placement
  • Scholastic Aptitude Test Score Stability
  • Importance of Score Stability
  • Factors for Score Stability
  • Reasons for Score Changes
  • Group Tests of Scholastic Aptitudes
  • Types of Group Aptitude Tests
  • Advantage
  • Number of Aptitudes Reported
  • Type of Test to Use
  • Two-Score Test: Otis-Lennon School Ability Test
  • Test Content
  • Test Organization
  • Norm-Referencing Scheme
  • Interpretation of Results
  • Achievement/Ability Comparisons
  • Multiple-Aptitude Test: Differential Aptitude Tests
  • Purpose
  • Test Content
  • Gender-Specific Norms
  • Advantage of the DAT
  • Combining Aptitude with Interest Assessment
  • Group Tests of Specific Aptitudes
  • Readiness Testing
  • Admissions Testing
  • Multiple-Assessment for Admission
  • College Admissions Tests
  • SAT
  • ACT Program
  • Individually Administered Tests of General Scholastic Aptitudes
  • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
  • History
  • Content
  • Structure of the Stanford-Binet V
  • Scores
  • Norm-Referenced Character
  • Wechsler Intelligence Scales
  • General Design
  • Scores
  • WAIS–IV
  • WISC–V
  • WPPSI–IV
  • Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
  • General Description
  • Content
  • Scores
  • Usefulness of the KABC–II Approach
  • Assessing Adaptive Behavior
  • Meaning of Adaptive Behavior
  • Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 3rd Edition (Vineland-3)
  • Assessing Vocational and Career Interests
  • What Are Interests?
  • Attitudes, Interests, and Values
  • Focus on Career Interests
  • Expressed, Manifested, Tested, and Inventoried Interests
  • Vocational Interest Inventories
  • Building Interest Inventories
  • Strong Interest Inventory
  • Kuder® Career Interests Assessment™
  • Assessing Attitudes
  • Attitudes and Their Characteristics
  • Assessing Personality Dimensions
  • Assessment Approaches
  • Projective Techniques
  • Structured Techniques
  • Usefulness of Tests for the Teacher
  • Conclusion
  • Exercises
  • Appendix A Educational Assessment Knowledge and Skills for Teachers
  • Appendix B Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (Revised) Prepared by the Joint Committee on Testing Practices
  • A. Developing and Selecting Appropriate Tests*
  • Test Developers
  • Test Users
  • B. Administering and Scoring Tests
  • Test Developers
  • Test Users
  • C. Reporting and Interpreting Test Results
  • Test Developers
  • Test Users
  • D. Informing Test-Takers
  • Test Developers or Test Users
  • Appendix C Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement Prepared by the NCME Ad Hoc Committee on the Development of a Code of Ethics: Cynthia B. Schmeiser, ACT—Chair; Kurt F. Geisinger, State University of New York; Sharon Johnson- Lewis, Detroit Public Schools; Edward D. Roeber, Council of Chief State School Officers; William D. Schafer, University of Maryland
  • Preamble and General Responsibilities
  • Section 1: Responsibilities of Those Who Develop Assessment Products and Services
  • Section 2: Responsibilities of Those Who Market and Sell Assessment Products and Services
  • Section 3: Responsibilities of Those Who Select Assessment Products and Services
  • Section 4: Responsibilities of Those Who Administer Assessments
  • Section 5: Responsibilities of Those Who Score Assessments
  • Section 6: Responsibilities of Those Who Interpret, Use, and Communicate Assessment Results
  • Section 7: Responsibilities of Those Who Educate Others About Assessment
  • Section 8: Responsibilities of Those Who Evaluate Educational Programs and Conduct Research on Assessments
  • Afterword
  • Appendix D Summaries of Taxonomies of Educational Objectives: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains
  • Appendix E Implementing the Principles of Universal Design via Technology-Based Testing
  • Appendix F Basic Statistical Concepts
  • Describing Distributions of Test Scores
  • Ranking Scores
  • Stem-and-Leaf Displays
  • Frequency Distributions
  • Frequency Polygons and Histograms
  • Score Distribution Shape Depends on Both the Test-Taker and the Test
  • Choice Between Histogram or Polygon
  • Comparing Two Distributions
  • Calculating Percentile Ranks
  • Measures of Central Tendency
  • Mode
  • Mean
  • Median
  • Measures of Variability
  • Range (R)
  • Interquartile Range (IR)
  • Standard Deviation (SD)
  • Calculating Stanines
  • The Correlation Coefficient
  • Calculating Basic Statistics with the Excel Spread Sheet
  • Appendix G Computational Procedures for Various Reliability Coefficients
  • Appendix H A Limited List of Published Tests
  • Appendix I List of Test Publishers and Their Websites
  • Appendix J Answers to Even-Numbered Exercises
  • Chapter 1
  • Chapter 2
  • Chapter 3
  • Chapter 4
  • Chapter 5
  • Chapter 6
  • Chapter 7
  • Chapter 8
  • Chapter 9
  • Chapter 10
  • Chapter 11
  • Chapter 12
  • Chapter 13
  • Chapter 14
  • Chapter 15
  • Chapter 16
  • Chapter 17
  • Chapter 18
  • Chapter 19
  • Glossary
  • References
  • Name Index
  • A
  • B
  • C
  • D
  • E
  • F
  • G
  • H
  • I
  • J
  • K
  • L
  • M
  • N
  • O
  • P
  • Q
  • R
  • S
  • T
  • V
  • W
  • X
  • Y
  • Z
  • Subject Index
  • A
  • B
  • C
  • D
  • E
  • F
  • G
  • H
  • I
  • J
  • K
  • L
  • M
  • N
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  • P
  • Q
  • R
  • S
  • T
  • U
  • V
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  • Y
  • Z