Ecology

Höfundar: William Bowman; Sally Hacker (Útgáfa: 6)
Ecology

Kaup valmöguleikar

Ecology is an easy-to-read and well-organized text for instructors and students to explore the basics and promote ecological literacy. Ecology, sixth edition, introduces readers to the beauty of nature and the importance of ecology and provides content in a way that engages students without overwhelming them in the process. The authors motivate students with an engaging case study conceptual approach that highlights relevant applications and data-driven examples.

Nánar um bókina

Útgefandi
Oxford University Press Academic US
ISBN
9780197614082
Print ISBN
9780197614044
Format
ePub
Útgáfa
6
Höfundar
William Bowman; Sally Hacker
Tungumál
English
Útgefið
2028-12-01
Prent takmörkun á líftíma
100

Kaflar

  • Cover Page
  • Title page
  • Copyright page
  • Dedication
  • About the Authors
  • Brief Contents
  • Preface
  • Core Principles Guiding Ecology, Sixth Edition
  • New to Ecology, Sixth Edition
  • Hallmark Features
  • Pedagogical Excellence
  • Links to Ecological Applications
  • Links to Evolution
  • Case Studies
  • Connections in Nature
  • Climate Change Connections
  • Ecological Inquiry
  • Analyzing Data Exercises
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • Figure Legend Questions
  • Ecological Toolkits
  • Ecology Is a Work in Progress
  • Accessible Color Content
  • Acknowledgments
  • Reviewers
  • Reviewers for the Sixth Edition
  • Reviewers for the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Editions
  • Digital Resources for Ecology, Sixth Edition
  • With Oxford Insight, instructors can:
  • Contents include:
  • For the Student
  • For the Instructor
  • Oxford Learning Link
  • Contents
  • 1 The Web of Life
  • Deformity and Decline in Amphibian Populations: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Connections in Nature
  • Early observations suggest that parasites cause amphibian deformities
  • A laboratory experiment tests the role of parasites
  • A field experiment suggests that multiple factors influence frog deformities
  • Connections in nature can lead to unanticipated impacts
  • What Is Ecology?
  • Public and professional ideas about ecology often differ
  • The scale of an ecological study affects what can be learned from it
  • Ecology is broad in scope
  • Some key terms are helpful for studying connections in nature
  • Answering Ecological Questions
  • Ecologists use experiments, observations, and models to answer ecological questions
  • Experiments are designed and analyzed in consistent ways
  • What we know about ecology is always changing
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 1 Organisms and Their Environment
  • 2 The Physical Environment
  • Climate Variation and Salmon Abundance: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Climate
  • Climate controls where and how organisms live
  • Global energy balance drives the climate system
  • Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation
  • Atmospheric circulation cells are established in regular latitudinal patterns
  • Atmospheric circulation cells create surface wind patterns
  • Ocean currents are driven by surface winds
  • Global Climate Patterns
  • Oceanic circulation and the distribution and topography of continents influence global temperatures
  • Patterns of atmospheric pressure and topography influence precipitation
  • Regional Climate Influences
  • Proximity to oceans influences regional climates
  • Mountains influence wind patterns and gradients in temperature and precipitation
  • Vegetation affects climate via surface energy exchange
  • Climate Variation over Time
  • Seasonality results from the tilt of Earth’s axis
  • Seasonal changes in aquatic environments are associated with changes in water temperature and density
  • Climate variation over years and decades results from changes in atmospheric pressure cells
  • The Chemical Environment
  • All waters contain dissolved salts
  • Organisms are sensitive to the acidity of their environment
  • Oxygen concentrations vary with elevation, diffusion, and consumption
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 3 The Biosphere
  • The American Serengeti—Twelve Centuries of Change in the Great Plains: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Terrestrial Biomes
  • Terrestrial biomes reflect global patterns of precipitation and temperature
  • The potential distributions of terrestrial biomes differ from their actual distributions due to human activities
  • Tropical Rainforests
  • Tropical Seasonal Forests and Savannas
  • Deserts
  • Temperate Grasslands
  • Temperate Shrublands and Woodlands
  • Temperate Deciduous Forests
  • Temperate Evergreen Forests
  • Boreal Forests
  • Tundra
  • Biological communities in mountains occur in elevational bands
  • Freshwater Biological Zones
  • Biological communities in streams and rivers vary with stream size and location within the stream channel
  • Biological communities in lakes vary with depth and light penetration
  • Marine Biological Zones
  • Nearshore zones reflect the influence of tides and substrate stability
  • Estuaries
  • Salt Marshes
  • Mangrove Forests
  • Rocky Intertidal Zones
  • Sandy Shores
  • Shallow ocean zones are diverse and productive
  • Coral Reefs
  • Seagrass Beds
  • Kelp Beds
  • Open ocean and deep benthic zones are determined by light availability and proximity to the bottom
  • Marine biological zones have been impacted by human activities
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 4 Coping with Environmental Variation: Temperature and Water
  • Frozen Frogs: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Responses to Environmental Variation
  • Species distributions reflect environmental influences on energy acquisition and physiological tolerances
  • Individuals respond to environmental variation through acclimatization
  • Populations respond to environmental variation through adaptation
  • Variation in Temperature
  • Temperature controls physiological activity
  • Organisms influence their temperature by modifying energy balance
  • Modification of Energy Balance by Plants
  • Modification of Energy Balance by Animals
  • Temperature Regulation and Tolerance in Ectotherms
  • Temperature Regulation and Tolerance in Endotherms
  • Variation in Water Availability
  • Water flows along energy gradients
  • Water losses and solute gains and losses must be compensated
  • Water Balance in Microorganisms
  • Water Balance in Plants
  • Water Balance in Animals
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 5 Coping with Environmental Variation: Energy
  • Toolmaking Crows: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Sources of Energy
  • Autotrophy
  • Chemosynthesis harvests energy from inorganic compounds
  • Photosynthesis is the powerhouse for life on Earth
  • Light-Driven and Carbon Reactions
  • Environmental Constraints and Solutions
  • Photosynthetic Pathways
  • Photorespiration lowers the efficiency of photosynthesis
  • C4 photosynthesis lowers photorespiratory energy loss
  • CAM photosynthesis enhances water conservation
  • Heterotrophy
  • Food sources differ in their chemistry and availability
  • Heterotrophs obtain food using diverse strategies
  • Morphological Diversity of Insect Mouthparts
  • Morphological Adaptation in Bird Bills
  • Heterotrophs vary in the complexity of their digestion and assimilation
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 2 Evolutionary Ecology
  • 6 Evolution and Ecology
  • Trophy Hunting and Inadvertent Evolution: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • What Is Evolution?
  • Evolution is allele frequency change
  • Evolution is descent with modification
  • Populations evolve, individuals do not
  • Mechanisms of Evolution
  • Mutation generates the raw material for evolution
  • Natural selection increases the frequencies of advantageous alleles and decreases the frequencies of deleterious alleles
  • Genetic drift results from random events
  • Gene flow is the transfer of alleles between populations
  • Adaptive Evolution
  • Adaptations are the result of natural selection
  • Adaptive evolution can occur rapidly
  • Gene flow can promote as well as limit local adaptation
  • Adaptations are not perfect
  • The Evolutionary History of Life
  • The genetic divergence of populations over time can lead to speciation
  • The diversity of life reflects both speciation and extinction rates
  • Mass extinctions and adaptive radiations have shaped long-term patterns of evolution
  • Joint Effects of Ecology and Evolution
  • Ecological interactions can cause evolutionary change
  • Evolution can alter ecological interactions
  • Eco-evolutionary feedbacks can occur over short periods of time
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 7 Life History
  • Nemo Grows Up: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Life History Diversity
  • Individuals within species differ in their life histories
  • Genetic Differences
  • Environmental Differences
  • Mode of reproduction is a basic life history trait
  • Asexual Reproduction
  • Sexual Reproduction and Anisogamy
  • Life cycles are often complex
  • Trade-Offs
  • There is a trade-off between number and size of offspring
  • Lack Clutch Size
  • Trade-Offs in Organisms Without Parental Care
  • There are trade-offs between current reproduction and other life history traits
  • Life Cycle Evolution
  • Small size has benefits and drawbacks
  • Parental Investment
  • Dispersal and Dormancy
  • Complex cycles may result from stage-specific selection pressures
  • Larval Function and Adaptation
  • Timing of Life Cycle Shifts
  • Some species reproduce only once, while others reproduce multiple times
  • Life History Continua
  • Live fast and die young, or slow and steady wins the race?
  • Plant life histories can be classified based on habitat characteristics
  • Life histories can be classified independent of size and time
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 8 Behavioral Ecology
  • Infanticide in Lion Packs: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • An Evolutionary Approach to Behavior
  • Natural selection shapes animal behaviors over time
  • Behaviors are determined by genes and by environmental conditions
  • Foraging Behavior
  • Optimal foraging theory addresses behavioral choices that enhance the rate of energy gain
  • Tests of Optimal Foraging Theory
  • The Marginal Value Theorem
  • Individuals often alter their foraging decisions when predators are present
  • Prey exhibit behaviors that can prevent detection or deter predators
  • Mating Behavior
  • Differences between males and females can result from sexual selection
  • Evidence for Sexual Selection
  • Benefits to Choosy Females
  • Gamete size, parental care, and ecological factors affect mating behavior
  • Why are Females Usually Choosier than Males?
  • Ecological Factors and Mating Behavior
  • Living in Groups
  • Benefits of group living include access to mates, protection from predators, and improved foraging success
  • Costs of group living include greater energy expenditures, more competition for food, and higher risks of disease
  • Group size may reflect a balance between the costs and benefits of group living
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 3 Populations
  • 9 Population Distribution and Abundance
  • From Kelp Forest to Urchin Barren: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Populations and Individuals
  • What are individuals?
  • Ecologists estimate abundance using a variety of methods
  • Distribution and Abundance Patterns
  • The geographic ranges of species vary in size
  • The geographic ranges of species vary in patchiness
  • Species distribution models can be used to predict a species’ geographic range
  • Processes Important to Distribution and Abundance
  • Habitat suitability determines distribution and abundance
  • The Abiotic Environment
  • The Biotic Environment
  • Interactions Between Abiotic and Biotic Environment
  • Disturbance
  • Distribution and abundance reflect evolutionary and geologic history
  • Dispersal is a process that distributes organisms across the landscape
  • Metapopulations
  • Metapopulations are characterized by repeated extinctions and colonizations
  • A metapopulation can go extinct even when suitable habitat remains
  • Extinction and colonization rates often vary among patches
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 10 Population Dynamics
  • A Sea in Trouble: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Patterns of Population Growth
  • Exponential growth can occur when conditions are favorable
  • In logistic growth, the population approaches an equilibrium
  • All populations fluctuate in size
  • Some species exhibit population cycles
  • Population Extinction
  • Fluctuations in population size can increase the risk of extinction
  • Small populations are at much greater risk of extinction than large populations
  • Risk from Genetic Factors
  • Risk from Demographic Factors
  • Risk from Environmental Variation
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 11 Population Growth and Regulation
  • Human Population Growth: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Geometric and Exponential Growth
  • Populations grow geometrically when reproduction occurs at regular time intervals
  • Populations grow exponentially when reproduction occurs continuously
  • Populations can grow rapidly because they increase by multiplication
  • There are limits to the growth of populations
  • Effects of Density
  • Density-independent factors can determine population size
  • Density-dependent factors regulate population size
  • Density dependence has been observed in many populations
  • Logistic Growth
  • The logistic equation models density-dependent population growth
  • Can logistic growth predict the carrying capacity of the U.S. population?
  • Life Tables
  • Age or size structure influences how rapidly populations grow
  • There are three types of survivorship curves
  • Life tables can be based on age, size, or life cycle stage
  • Extensive life table data exist for people
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 4 Species Interactions
  • 12 Predation
  • Snowshoe Hare Cycles: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Carnivore and Herbivore Dietary Preferences
  • Many carnivores have broad diets
  • Most herbivores have relatively narrow diets
  • Specialization on Particular Plant Parts
  • Specialization on Plant Species
  • Mechanisms Important to Predation
  • Some carnivores move to search for and capture prey, while others sit and wait
  • Escaping carnivores: Physical defenses, toxins, mimicry, and behavior
  • Reciprocal plant–herbivore interactions
  • Reducing Herbivory: Avoidance, Tolerance, and Defenses
  • Overcoming Plant Defenses: Structural, Chemical, and Behavioral Adaptations
  • Evolution can influence plant–herbivore interactions
  • Predator–Prey Population Cycles
  • Predator–prey cycles can be modeled mathematically
  • Predator–prey cycles can be reproduced under laboratory conditions
  • Predator–prey cycles can persist in the field
  • Effects of Predation on Communities
  • Carnivores can alter communities in dramatic ways
  • Herbivores can alter communities in dramatic ways
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 13 Parasitism
  • Enslaver Parasites: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Parasite Natural History
  • Ectoparasites live on the surface of their host
  • Endoparasites live inside their host
  • Endoparasitism and ectoparasitism have advantages and disadvantages
  • Defense and Counterdefenses
  • Immune systems, biochemical defenses, and symbionts can protect hosts against parasites
  • Immune Systems
  • Biochemical Defenses
  • Defensive Symbionts
  • Parasites have mechanisms that circumvent host defenses
  • Counterdefenses Against Encapsulation
  • Counterdefenses Involving Hundreds of Genes
  • Parasite–Host Coevolution
  • Selection can favor a diversity of host and parasite genotypes
  • Host defenses and parasite counterdefenses both have costs
  • Host–Parasite Population Dynamics
  • Parasites can drive host populations to extinction
  • Parasites can influence host population cycles
  • Simple models of host–pathogen dynamics suggest ways to control the establishment and spread of diseases
  • Controlling the Spread of Diseases
  • Parasites Can Change Ecological Communities
  • Changes in species interactions
  • Changes in community structure
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 14 Competition
  • Competition in Plants That Eat Animals: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • General Features of Competition
  • Species may compete directly or indirectly
  • Competition can vary in intensity depending on resource availability and type
  • Competition is often asymmetrical
  • Competition can occur between closely or distantly related species
  • Competition for resources is common in natural communities
  • Competitive Coexistence
  • Competitors that use limiting resources in the same way cannot coexist
  • Competitors may coexist if they use resources differently
  • Competition can lead to character displacement and resource partitioning
  • The Lotka–Volterra Competition Model
  • Predicting the outcome of competition
  • The strength of competitive interactions affects coexistence
  • Altering the Outcome of Competition
  • The physical environment can affect competition and ultimately the distribution of species
  • Disturbance can prevent competition from running its course
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 15 Mutualism and Commensalism
  • The First Farmers: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Positive Interactions
  • Mutualism and commensalism are ubiquitous
  • Positive interactions can be obligate or facultative and loosely structured
  • Positive interactions can cease to be beneficial under some circumstances
  • Positive interactions may be more common in stressful environments
  • Characteristics of Mutualism
  • Mutualisms can be categorized according to the benefits they provide
  • Mutualists are in it for themselves
  • Some mutualists have mechanisms to prevent overexploitation
  • Ecological Consequences of Positive Interactions
  • Positive interactions influence the abundances and distributions of populations
  • Effects on Abundance
  • Effects on Distribution
  • Positive interactions can alter communities and ecosystems
  • Community Diversity
  • Species Interactions and Ecosystem Properties
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 5 Communities
  • 16 The Nature of Communities
  • “Killer Algae!”: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • What Are Communities?
  • Ecologists often delineate communities by their physical or biological characteristics
  • Ecologists may use subsets of species to define communities
  • Community Structure
  • Species diversity is an important measure of community structure
  • Species within communities differ in their commonness or rarity
  • Species diversity estimates vary with sampling effort and scale
  • Species composition tells us who is in the community
  • Interactions of Multiple Species
  • Indirect species interactions can have large effects
  • Species interactions vary greatly in strength and direction
  • Environmental context can change the outcome of species interactions
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 17 Change in Communities
  • A Natural Experiment of Mountainous Proportions: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Agents of Change
  • Agents of change can be abiotic or biotic
  • Agents of change vary in their intensity, frequency, and extent
  • The Basics of Succession
  • Primary succession and secondary succession differ in their initial stages
  • The early history of ecology is a study of succession
  • Multiple models of succession were stimulated by lack of scientific consensus
  • Mechanisms of Succession
  • No one model fits any one community
  • Primary Succession in Glacier Bay, Alaska
  • Secondary Succession in a New England Salt Marsh
  • Primary Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities
  • Experiments show facilitation to be important in early stages
  • Alternative Stable States
  • Alternative states are controlled by strong interactors
  • Human actions have caused communities to shift to alternative states
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 18 Biogeography
  • The Largest Ecological Experiment on Earth: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Biogeography and Spatial Scale
  • Patterns of species diversity at different spatial scales are interconnected
  • Local and regional processes interact to determine local species diversity
  • Global Biogeography
  • The biotas of biogeographic regions reflect evolutionary isolation
  • Species diversity varies with latitude
  • Latitudinal gradients have multiple, interrelated causes
  • Species Diversification Rate
  • Species Diversification Time
  • Productivity
  • Regional Biogeography
  • Species richness increases with area and decreases with distance
  • Species richness is a balance between immigration and extinction
  • The equilibrium theory of island biogeography holds true for mainland areas
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 19 Species Diversity in Communities
  • Can Species Diversity Suppress Human Diseases? A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Community Membership
  • Species supply is the “first cut” to community membership
  • Environmental conditions play a strong role in limiting community membership
  • Who interacts with whom makes all the difference in community membership
  • Resource Partitioning
  • Early studies suggested that resource partitioning was the main mechanism of coexistence
  • Resource Mediation and Species Diversity
  • Processes that mediate resources can allow species to coexist
  • The intermediate disturbance hypothesis considers species diversity under variable conditions
  • There have been several elaborations on the intermediate disturbance hypothesis
  • The Menge-Sutherland model separates the effects of predation from those of disturbance and stress
  • Lottery and neutral models rely on equality and chance
  • The Consequences of Diversity
  • Some relationships between species diversity and community function are positive
  • There is debate over diversity-function relationships and their explanations
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 6 Ecosystems
  • 20 Production
  • Life in the Deep Blue Sea, How Can It Be? A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Primary Production
  • Gross primary production is total ecosystem photosynthesis
  • Net primary production is the energy remaining after respiratory losses
  • NPP changes during ecosystem development
  • NPP can be estimated by a number of methods
  • Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • Aquatic Ecosystems
  • Environmental Controls on NPP
  • NPP in terrestrial ecosystems is controlled by climate
  • NPP in aquatic ecosystems is controlled by nutrient availability
  • Global Patterns of NPP
  • Terrestrial and oceanic NPP are nearly equal
  • Differences among biomes in NPP reflect climate and biotic variation
  • Secondary Production
  • Heterotroph diets can be determined from the isotopic composition of food sources
  • Net secondary production is equal to heterotroph growth
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 21 Energy Flow and Food Webs
  • Toxins in Remote Places: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Feeding Relationships
  • Organisms can be grouped into trophic levels
  • All organisms are either consumed or end up as detritus
  • Energy Flow between Trophic Levels
  • Energy flow between trophic levels can be depicted using energy or biomass pyramids
  • Energy flow between trophic levels differs among ecosystem types
  • The efficiency of energy transfer varies among consumers
  • Trophic efficiencies can influence population dynamics
  • Trophic Cascades
  • Trophic interactions can trickle down through multiple trophic levels
  • An Aquatic Trophic Cascade
  • A Terrestrial Trophic Cascade
  • What determines the number of trophic levels?
  • Food Webs
  • Food webs are complex
  • The strengths of trophic interactions are variable
  • Does complexity enhance stability in food webs?
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 22 Nutrient Supply and Cycling
  • A Fragile Crust: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Nutrient Requirements and Sources
  • Organisms have specific nutrient requirements
  • Minerals and atmospheric gases are the ultimate sources of nutrients
  • Mineral Sources of Nutrients
  • Atmospheric Sources of Nutrients
  • Nutrient Transformations
  • Decomposition is a key nutrient recycling process
  • Microorganisms modify the chemical form of nutrients
  • Plants can recycle nutrients internally
  • Nutrient Cycles and Losses
  • Nutrients cycle at different rates according to element identity and ecosystem type
  • Catchment studies measure losses of nutrients from ecosystems
  • Long-term ecosystem development affects nutrient cycling and constraints on primary production
  • Nutrients in Aquatic Ecosystems
  • Nutrients in streams and rivers cycle while moving downstream
  • Nutrients in lakes cycle efficiently in the water column
  • Imports and upwelling are important sources of nutrients in marine ecosystems
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • UNIT 7 Applied and Large-Scale Ecology
  • 23 Conservation Biology
  • Can Birds and Bombs Coexist? A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Conservation Biology
  • Protecting biodiversity is important for both practical and moral reasons
  • The field of conservation biology arose in response to global biodiversity losses
  • Conservation biology is a value-based discipline
  • Declining Biodiversity
  • The rate at which Earth is losing species is accelerating
  • Extinction is the end point of incremental biological decline
  • Earth’s biota is becoming increasingly homogenized
  • Threats to Diversity
  • Habitat loss and degradation are the most important threats to diversity
  • Invasive species can displace native species and alter ecosystem properties
  • Overexploitation of species has large effects on ecological communities
  • Pollution, disease, and climate change erode the viability of populations
  • Approaches to Conservation
  • Genetic analyses are important conservation tools
  • Demographic models can guide management decisions
  • Ex situ conservation is a last-resort measure to rescue species on the brink of extinction
  • Ranking Species for Protection
  • The rarest and the most rapidly declining species are priorities for protection
  • Protection of surrogate species can provide protection for other species with similar habitat requirements
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 24 Landscape Ecology and Ecosystem Management
  • Wolves in the Yellowstone Landscape: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Landscape Ecology
  • A landscape is a heterogeneous area composed of a dynamic mosaic of interacting ecosystems
  • Describing Landscape Heterogeneity
  • The Importance of Scale
  • Landscape patterns affect ecological processes
  • Disturbance both creates and is influenced by landscape heterogeneity
  • Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
  • Fragmented habitats are biologically impoverished relative to intact habitats
  • Edge effects change abiotic conditions and species abundances in fragments
  • Fragmentation alters evolutionary processes
  • Designing Nature Reserves
  • Core natural areas should promote species persistence
  • Core natural areas should be buffered by compatible land uses
  • Corridors can help maintain biodiversity in a fragmented landscape
  • Ecological restoration can increase biodiversity in degraded landscapes
  • Ecosystem Management
  • Approaches to managing natural resources have become more collaborative over time
  • Ecosystem management sets sustainable goals, implements policies, monitors effectiveness, and adjusts as necessary
  • Humans are an integral part of ecosystems
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • 25 Global Ecology
  • Dust Storms of Epic Proportions: A Case Study
  • Introduction
  • Global Biogeochemical Cycles
  • Carbon cycles dynamically at the global scale
  • Biological fluxes dominate the global nitrogen cycle
  • The global phosphorus cycle is dominated by geochemical fluxes
  • Biological and geochemical fluxes both determine the global sulfur cycle
  • Global Climate Change
  • Evidence of climate change is substantial
  • What are the causes of the observed climate change?
  • Ecological responses to climate change are occurring
  • Climate change will continue to have ecological consequences
  • Acid and Nitrogen Deposition
  • Acid precipitation causes nutrient imbalances and aluminum toxicity
  • Nitrogen deposition: Too much of a good thing can be bad
  • Atmospheric Ozone
  • Loss of stratospheric ozone increases transmission of harmful radiation
  • Tropospheric ozone is harmful to organisms
  • Summary
  • Review Questions
  • Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills
  • List of Key Terms
  • Appendix Some Metric Measurements Used in Ecology
  • Answers Ecology
  • Chapter 1
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 1.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 2
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 2.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 3
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 3.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 4
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 4.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 5
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 5.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 6
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 6.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 7
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 7.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 8
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 8.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 9
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 9.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 10
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 10.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 11
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 11.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 12
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 12.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 13
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 13.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 14
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 14.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 15
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 15.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 16
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 16.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 17
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 17.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 18
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 18.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 19
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 19.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 20
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 20.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 21
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 21.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 22
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 22.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 23
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 23.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 24
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 24.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Chapter 25
  • Answers to Figure Legend Questions
  • Answers to Analyzing Data 25.1 Questions
  • Answers to Review Questions
  • Answers to Hone Your Problem-Solving Skills Questions
  • Glossary
  • Literature Cited
  • A
  • B
  • C
  • D
  • E
  • F
  • G
  • H
  • I
  • J
  • K
  • L
  • M
  • N
  • O
  • P
  • R
  • S
  • T
  • U
  • V
  • W
  • Y
  • Z
  • Index
  • List of Illustrations
  • List of Tables
  • Images
  • Copyright page
  • 1 The Web of Life
  • 2 The Physical Environment
  • 3 The Biosphere
  • 4 Coping with Environmental Variation: Temperature and Water
  • 5 Coping with Environmental Variation: Energy
  • 6 Evolution and Ecology
  • 7 Life History
  • 8 Behavioral Ecology
  • 9 Population Distribution and Abundance
  • 10 Population Dynamics
  • 11 Population Growth and Regulation
  • 12 Predation
  • 13 Parasitism
  • 14 Competition
  • 15 Mutualism and Commensalism
  • 16 The Nature of Communities
  • 17 Change in Communities
  • 18 Biogeography
  • 19 Species Diversity in Communities
  • 20 Production
  • 21 Energy Flow and Food Webs
  • 22 Nutrient Supply and Cycling
  • 23 Conservation Biology
  • 24 Landscape Ecology and Ecosystem Management
  • 25 Global Ecology