Climate Change 2014 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Part B: Regional Aspects: Volume 2, Regional Aspects

Höfundur: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (Útgáfa: 1)
Climate Change 2014 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Part B: Regional Aspects: Volume 2, Regional Aspects

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Útgefandi
Cambridge University Press
ISBN
9781316236574
Print ISBN
9781107058163
Format
Page Fidelity (PDF)
Útgáfa
1
Höfundar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Tungumál
English
Útgefið
2014-12-29
Prent takmörkun á líftíma
10
Prent takmörkun
5
Afritunar takmörkun
5

Kaflar

  • Title
  • Copyright
  • Contents
  • Chapters 21-30
  • 21 Regional Context
  • Executive Summary
  • 21.1. Introduction
  • 21.2. Defining Regional Context
  • 21.2.1. Decision-Making Context
  • 21.2.2. Defining Regions
  • 21.2.3. Introduction to Methods and Information
  • 21.3. Synthesis of Key Regional Issues
  • 21.3.1. Vulnerabilities and Impacts
  • 21.3.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 21.3.1.2. Future Impacts and Vulnerability
  • 21.3.2. Adaptation
  • 21.3.2.1. Similarities and Differences in Regions
  • 21.3.2.2. Adaptation Examples in Multiple Regions
  • 21.3.2.3. Adaptation Examples in Single Regions
  • 21.3.3. Climate System
  • 21.3.3.1. Global Context
  • 21.3.3.2. Dynamically and Statistically Downscaled Climate Projections
  • 21.3.3.3. Projected Changes in Hydroclimatic Regimes, Major Modes of Variability, and Regional Circu
  • 21.3.3.4. Projected Changes in Extreme Climate Events
  • 21.3.3.5. Projected Changes in Sea Level
  • 21.3.3.6. Projected Changes in Air Quality
  • 21.4. Cross-Regional Phenomena
  • 21.4.1. Trade and Financial Flows
  • 21.4.1.1. International Trade and Emissions
  • 21.4.1.2. Trade and Financial Flows as Factors Influencing Vulnerability
  • 21.4.1.3. Sensitivity of International Trade to Climate
  • 21.4.2. Human Migration
  • 21.4.3. Migration of Natural Ecosystems
  • 21.5. Analysis and Reliability of Approaches to Regional Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability Stud
  • 21.5.1. Analyses of Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity
  • 21.5.1.1. Indicators and Indices
  • 21.5.1.2. Hotspots
  • 21.5.2. Impacts Analyses
  • 21.5.3. Development and Application of Baseline and Scenario Information
  • 21.5.3.1. Baseline Information: Context, Current Status, and Recent Advances
  • 21.5.3.2. Development of Projections and Scenarios
  • 21.5.3.3. Credibility of Projections and Scenarios
  • 21.6. Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 21.1: How does this report stand alongside previous assessments for informing regional adaptation?
  • 21.2: Do local and regional impacts of climate change affect other parts of the world?
  • 21.3: What regional information should I take into account for climate risk management for the 20-ye
  • 21.4: Is the highest resolution climate projection the best to use for performing impacts assessment
  • 22 Africa
  • Executive Summary
  • 22.1. Introduction
  • 22.1.1. Structure of the Regions
  • 22.1.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 22.1.2.1. Regional Special Report and Assessment Reports
  • 22.1.2.2. Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Ch
  • 22.2. Observed Climate Trends and Future Projections
  • 22.2.1. Temperature
  • 22.2.1.1. Observed Trends
  • 22.2.1.2. Projected Trends
  • 22.2.2. Precipitation
  • 22.2.2.1. Observed Changes
  • 22.2.2.2. Projected Changes
  • 22.2.3. Observed and Projected Changes in Extreme Temperature and Rainfall
  • 22.3. Vulnerability and Impacts
  • 22.3.1. Socioeconomic and Environmental Context Influencing Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity
  • 22.3.2. Ecosystems
  • 22.3.2.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • 22.3.2.2. Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 22.3.2.3. Coastal and Ocean Systems
  • 22.3.3. Water Resources
  • 22.3.4. Agriculture and Food Security
  • 22.3.4.1. Crops
  • 22.3.4.2. Livestock
  • 22.3.4.3. Agricultural Pests, Diseases, and Weeds
  • 22.3.4.4. Fisheries
  • 22.3.4.5. Food Security
  • 22.3.5. Health
  • 22.3.5.1. Introduction
  • 22.3.5.2. Food-and Water-Borne Diseases
  • 22.3.5.3. Nutrition
  • 22.3.5.4. Vector-Borne Diseases and Other Climate-Sensitive Health Outcomes
  • 22.3.6. Urbanization
  • 22.4. Adaptation
  • 22.4.1. Introduction
  • 22.4.2. Adaptation Needs, Gaps, and Adaptive Capacity
  • 22.4.3. Adaptation, Equity, and Sustainable Development
  • 22.4.4. Experiences in Building the Governance System for Adaptation, and Lessons Learned
  • 22.4.4.1. Introduction
  • 22.4.4.2. Regional and National Adaptation Planning and Implementation
  • 22.4.4.3. Institutional Frameworks for Adaptation
  • 22.4.4.4. Subnational Adaptation Governance
  • 22.4.4.5. Community-Based Adaptation and Local Institutions
  • 22.4.4.6. Adaptation Decision Making and Monitoring
  • 22.4.5. Experiences with Adaptation Measures in Africa and Lessons Learned
  • 22.4.5.1. Overview
  • 22.4.5.2. Climate Risk Reduction, Risk Transfer, and Livelihood Diversification
  • 22.4.5.3. Adaptation as a Participatory Learning Process
  • 22.4.5.4. Knowledge Development and Sharing
  • 22.4.5.5. Communication, Education, and Capacity Development
  • 22.4.5.6. Ecosystem Services, Biodiversity, and Natural Resource Management
  • 22.4.5.7. Technological and Infrastructural Adaptation Responses
  • 22.4.5.8. Maladaptation Risks
  • 22.4.6. Barriers and Limits to Adaptation in Africa
  • 22.5. Key Risks for Africa
  • 22.6. Emerging Issues
  • 22.6.1. Human Security
  • 22.6.1.1. Violent Conflict
  • 22.6.1.2. Migration
  • 22.6.2. Integrated Adaptation/Mitigation Approaches
  • 22.6.3. Biofuels and Land Use
  • 22.6.4. Climate Finance and Management
  • 22.7. Research Gaps
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 22.1: How could climate change impact food security in Africa?
  • 22.2: What role does climate change play with regard to violent conflict in Africa?
  • 23 Europe
  • Executive Summary
  • 23.1. Introduction
  • 23.1.1. Scope and Route Map of Chapter
  • 23.1.2. Policy Frameworks
  • 23.1.3. Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 23.2. Current and Future Trends
  • 23.2.1. Non-Climate Trends
  • 23.2.2. Observed and Projected Climate Change
  • 23.2.2.1. Observed Climate Change
  • 23.2.2.2. Projected Climate Changes
  • 23.2.2.3. Projected Changes in Climate Extremes
  • 23.2.3. Observed and Projected Trends in Riverflow and Drought
  • 23.3. Implications of Climate Change for Production Systems and Physical Infrastructure
  • 23.3.1. Settlements
  • 23.3.1.1. Coastal Flooding
  • 23.3.1.2. River and Pluvial Flooding
  • 23.3.1.3. Windstorms
  • 23.3.1.4. Mass Movements and Avalanches
  • 23.3.2. Built Environment
  • 23.3.3. Transport
  • 23.3.4. Energy Production, Transmission, and Use
  • 23.3.5. Industry and Manufacturing
  • 23.3.6. Tourism
  • 23.3.7. Insurance and Banking
  • 23.4. Implications of Climate Change for Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, and Bioenergy Production
  • 23.4.1. Plant (Food) Production
  • 23.4.2. Livestock Production
  • 23.4.3. Water Resources and Agriculture
  • 23.4.4. Forestry
  • 23.4.5. Bioenergy Production
  • 23.4.6. Fisheries and Aquaculture
  • 23.5. Implications of Climate Change for Health and Social Welfare
  • 23.5.1. Human Population Health
  • 23.5.2. Critical Infrastructure
  • 23.5.3. Social Impacts
  • 23.5.4. Cultural Heritage and Landscapes
  • 23.6. Implications of Climate Change for the Protection of Environmental Quality and Biological Cons
  • 23.6.1. Air Quality
  • 23.6.2. Soil Quality and Land Degradation
  • 23.6.3. Water Quality
  • 23.6.4. Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 23.6.5. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
  • 23.7. Cross-Sectoral Adaptation Decision Making and Risk Management
  • 23.7.1. Coastal Zone Management
  • 23.7.2. Integrated Water Resource Management
  • 23.7.3. Disaster Risk Reduction and Risk Management
  • 23.7.4. Land Use Planning
  • 23.7.5. Rural Development
  • 23.7.6. Economic Assessments of Adaptation
  • 23.7.7. Barriers and Limits to Adaptation
  • 23.8. Co-benefits and Unintended Consequences of Adaptation and Mitigation
  • 23.8.1. Production and Infrastructure
  • 23.8.2. Agriculture, Forestry, and Bioenergy
  • 23.8.3. Social and Health Impacts
  • 23.8.4. Environmental Quality and Biological Conservation
  • 23.9. Synthesis of Key Findings
  • 23.9.1. Key Vulnerabilities
  • 23.9.2. Climate Change Impacts Outside Europe and Inter-regional Implications
  • 23.9.3. Effects of Observed Climate Change in Europe
  • 23.9.4. Key Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 23.1: Will I still be able to live on the coast in Europe?
  • 23.2: Will climate change introduce new infectious diseases into Europe?
  • 23.3: Will Europe need to import more food because of climate change?
  • 24 Asia
  • Executive Summary
  • 24.1. Introduction
  • 24.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 24.3. Observed and Projected Climate Change
  • 24.3.1. Observed Climate Change
  • 24.3.1.1. Temperature
  • 24.3.1.2. Precipitation and Monsoons
  • 24.3.1.3. Tropical and Extratropical Cyclones
  • 24.3.1.4. Surface Wind Speeds
  • 24.3.1.5. Oceans
  • 24.3.2. Projected Climate Change
  • 24.3.2.1. Tropical and Extratropical Cyclones
  • 24.3.2.2. Monsoons
  • 24.3.2.3. Oceans
  • 24.4. Observed and Projected Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation
  • 24.4.1. Freshwater Resources
  • 24.4.1.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.1.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.1.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.1.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.1.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.2. Terrestrial and Inland Water Systems
  • 24.4.2.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.2.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.2.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.2.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.2.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.3. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas
  • 24.4.3.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.3.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.3.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.3.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.3.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.4. Food Production Systems and Food Security
  • 24.4.4.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.4.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.4.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.4.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.4.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.5. Human Settlements, Industry, and Infrastructure
  • 24.4.5.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.5.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.5.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.5.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.5.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.6. Human Health, Security, Livelihoods, and Poverty
  • 24.4.6.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.6.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.6.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.6.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.6.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.7. Valuation of Impacts and Adaptation
  • 24.5. Adaptation and Managing Risks
  • 24.5.1. Conservation of Natural Resources
  • 24.5.2. Flood Risks and Coastal Inundation
  • 24.5.3. Economic Growth and Equitable Development
  • 24.5.4. Mainstreaming and Institutional Barriers
  • 24.5.5. Role of Higher Education in Adaptation and Risk Management
  • 24.6. Adaptation and Mitigation Interactions
  • 24.7. Intra-regional and Inter-regional Issues
  • 24.7.1. Transboundary Pollution
  • 24.7.2. Trade and Economy
  • 24.7.3. Migration and Population Displacement
  • 24.8. Research and Data Gaps
  • 24.9. Case Studies
  • 24.9.1. Transboundary Adaptation Planning and Management—Lower Mekong River Basin
  • 24.9.2. Glaciers of Central Asia
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 24.1: What will the projected impact of future climate change be on freshwater resources in Asia?
  • 24.2: How will climate change affect food production and food security in Asia?
  • 24.3: Who is most at risk from climate change in Asia?
  • 25 Australasia
  • Executive Summary
  • 25.1. Introduction and Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 25.2. Observed and Projected Climate Change
  • 25.3. Socioeconomic Trends Influencing Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity
  • 25.3.1. Economic, Demographic, and Social Trends
  • 25.3.2. Use and Relevance of Socioeconomic Scenarios in Adaptive Capacity/Vulnerability Assessments
  • 25.4. Cross-Sectoral Adaptation: Approaches, Effectiveness, and Constraints
  • 25.4.1. Frameworks, Governance, and Institutional Arrangements
  • 25.4.2. Constraints on Adaptation and Leading Practice Models
  • 25.4.3. Psychological and Sociocultural Factors Influencing Impacts of and Adaptation to Climate Cha
  • 25.5. Freshwater Resources
  • 25.5.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.5.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.5.3. Adaptation
  • 25.6. Natural Ecosystems
  • 25.6.1. Inland Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • 25.6.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.6.1.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.6.1.3. Adaptation
  • 25.6.2. Coastal and Ocean Ecosystems
  • 25.6.2.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.6.2.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.6.2.3. Adaptation
  • 25.7. Major Industries
  • 25.7.1. Production Forestry
  • 25.7.1.1. Observed and Projected Impacts
  • 25.7.1.2. Adaptation
  • 25.7.2. Agriculture
  • 25.7.2.1. Projected Impacts and Adaptation—Livestock Systems
  • 25.7.2.2. Projected Impacts and Adaptation—Cropping
  • 25.7.2.3. Integrated Adaptation Perspectives
  • 25.7.3. Mining
  • 25.7.4. Energy Supply, Demand, and Transmission
  • 25.7.5. Tourism
  • 25.7.5.1. Projected Impacts
  • 25.7.5.2. Adaptation
  • 25.8. Human Society
  • 25.8.1. Human Health
  • 25.8.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.8.1.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.8.1.3. Adaptation
  • 25.8.2. Indigenous Peoples
  • 25.8.2.1. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders
  • 25.8.2.2. New Zealand Maori
  • 25.9. Interactions among Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation Responses
  • 25.9.1. Interactions among Local-Level Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation Responses
  • 25.9.2. Intra-and Inter-regional Flow-on Effects among Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation
  • 25.10. Synthesis and Regional Key Risks
  • 25.10.1. Economy-wide Impacts and the Potential of Mitigation to Reduce Risks
  • 25.10.2. Regional Key Risks as a Function of Mitigation and Adaptation
  • 25.10.3. Challenges to Adaptation in Managing Key Risks, and Limits to Adaptation
  • 25.11. Filling Knowledge Gaps to Improve Management of Climate Risks
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 25.1: How can we adapt to climate change if projected future changes remain uncertain?
  • 25.2: What are the key risks from climate change to Australia and New Zealand?
  • 26 North America
  • Executive Summary
  • 26.1. Introduction
  • Findings from the Fourth Assessment Report
  • Observed Impacts and Processes Associated with Vulnerability
  • 26.2. Key Trends Influencing Risk, Vulnerability, and Capacities for Adaptation
  • 26.2.1. Demographic and Socioeconomic Trends
  • 26.2.1.1. Current Trends
  • 26.2.1.2. Future Trends
  • 26.2.2. Physical Climate Trends
  • 26.2.2.1. Current Trends
  • 26.2.2.2. Climate Change Projections
  • 26.3. Water Resources and Management
  • 26.3.1. Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources
  • 26.3.1.1. Droughts and Floods
  • 26.3.1.2. Mean Annual Streamflow
  • 26.3.1.3. Snowmelt
  • 26.3.2. Projected Climate Change Impacts and Risks
  • 26.3.2.1. Water Supply
  • 26.3.2.2. Water Quality
  • 26.3.2.3. Flooding
  • 26.3.2.4. Instream Uses
  • 26.3.3. Adaptation
  • 26.4. Ecosystems and Biodiversity
  • 26.4.1. Overview
  • 26.4.2. Tree Mortality and Forest Infestation
  • 26.4.2.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.4.2.2. Projected Impacts and Risks
  • 26.4.3. Coastal Ecosystems
  • 26.4.3.1. Observed Climate Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 26.4.3.2. Projected Impacts and Risks
  • 26.4.4. Ecosystems Adaptation, and Mitigation
  • 26.5. Agriculture and Food Security
  • 26.5.1. Observed Climate Change Impacts
  • 26.5.2. Projected Climate Change Risks
  • 26.5.3. A Closer Look at Mexico
  • 26.5.4. Adaptation
  • 26.6. Human Health
  • 26.6.1. Observed Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Trends
  • 26.6.1.1. Storm-Related Impacts
  • 26.6.1.2. Temperature Extremes
  • 26.6.1.3. Air Quality
  • 26.6.1.4. Pollen
  • 26.6.1.5. Water-borne Diseases
  • 26.6.1.6. Vector-borne Diseases
  • 26.6.2. Projected Climate Change Impacts
  • 26.6.3. Adaptation Responses
  • 26.7. Key Economic Sectors and Services
  • 26.7.1. Energy
  • 26.7.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.1.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.1.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.2. Transportation
  • 26.7.2.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.2.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.2.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.3. Mining
  • 26.7.3.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.3.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.3.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.4. Manufacturing
  • 26.7.4.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.4.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.4.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.5. Construction and Housing
  • 26.7.5.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.5.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.5.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.6. Insurance
  • 26.7.6.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.6.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.6.3. Adaptation
  • 26.8. Urban and Rural Settlements
  • 26.8.1. Observed Weather and Climate Impacts
  • 26.8.2. Observed Factors and Processes Associated with Vulnerability
  • 26.8.2.1. Urban Settlements
  • 26.8.2.2. Rural Settlements
  • 26.8.3. Projected Climate Risks on Urban and Rural Settlements
  • 26.8.4. Adaptation
  • 26.8.4.1. Evidence of Adaptation
  • 26.8.4.2. Opportunities and Constraints
  • 26.9. Federal and Subnational Level Adaptation
  • 26.9.1. Federal Level Adaptation
  • 26.9.2. Subnational Level Adaptation
  • 26.9.3. Barriers to Adaptation
  • 26.9.4. Maladaptation, Trade-Offs, and Co-benefits
  • 26.10. Key Risks, Uncertainties, Knowledge Gaps, and Research Needs
  • 26.10.1. Key Multi-sectoral Risks
  • 26.10.2. Uncertainties, Knowledge Gaps, and Research Needs
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 26.1: What impact are climate stressors having on North America?
  • 26.2: Can adaptation reduce the adverse impacts of climate stressors in North America?
  • 27 Central and South America
  • Executive Summary
  • 27.1. Introduction
  • 27.1.1. The Central and South America Region
  • 27.1.2. Summary of the Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Ext
  • 27.1.2.1. Fourth Assessment Report Findings
  • 27.1.2.2. IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Clima
  • 27.2. Major Recent Changes and Projections in the Region
  • 27.2.1. Climatic Stressors
  • 27.2.1.1. Climate Trends, Long-Term Changes in Variability, and Extremes
  • 27.2.1.2. Climate Projections
  • 27.2.2. Non-Climatic Stressors
  • 27.2.2.1. Trends and Projections in Land Use and Land Use Change
  • 27.2.2.2. Trends and Projections in Socioeconomic Conditions
  • 27.3. Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.1. Freshwater Resources
  • 27.3.1.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.1.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.2. Terrestrial and Inland Water Systems
  • 27.3.2.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.2.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.3. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas
  • 27.3.3.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.3.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.4. Food Production Systems and Food Security
  • 27.3.4.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.4.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.5. Human Settlements, Industry, and Infrastructure
  • 27.3.5.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.5.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.6. Renewable Energy
  • 27.3.6.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.6.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.7. Human Health
  • 27.3.7.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.7.2. Adaptation Strategies and Practices
  • 27.4. Adaptation Opportunities, Constraints, and Limits
  • 27.4.1. Adaptation Needs and Gaps
  • 27.4.2. Practical Experiences of Autonomous and Planned Adaptation, Including Lessons Learned
  • 27.4.3. Observed and Expected Barriers to Adaptation
  • 27.5. Interactions between Adaptation and Mitigation
  • 27.6. Case Studies
  • 27.6.1. Hydropower
  • 27.6.2. Payment for Ecosystem Services
  • 27.7. Data and Research Gaps
  • 27.8. Conclusions
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 27.1: What is the impact of glacier retreat on natural and human systems in the tropical Andes?
  • 27.2: Can payment for ecosystem services be used as an effective way for helping local communities t
  • 28 Polar Regions
  • Executive Summary
  • 28.1. Introduction
  • 28.2. Observed Changes and Vulnerability under Multiple Stressors
  • 28.2.1. Hydrology and Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 28.2.1.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.1.2. Antarctic
  • 28.2.2. Oceanography and Marine Ecosystems
  • 28.2.2.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.2.2. Antarctica
  • 28.2.3. Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • 28.2.3.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.3.2. Antarctica
  • 28.2.4. Health and Well-being of Arctic Residents
  • 28.2.4.1. Direct Impacts of a Changing Climate on the Health of Arctic Residents
  • 28.2.4.2. Indirect Impacts of Climate Change on the Health of Arctic Residents
  • 28.2.5. Indigenous Peoples and Traditional Knowledge
  • 28.2.6. Economic Sectors
  • 28.2.6.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.6.2. Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
  • 28.3. Key Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 28.3.1. Hydrology and Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 28.3.1.1. Arctic
  • 28.3.1.2. Antarctica
  • 28.3.2. Oceanography and Marine Ecosystems
  • 28.3.2.1. Ocean Acidification in the Arctic and Antarctic
  • 28.3.2.2. Arctic
  • 28.3.2.3. Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
  • 28.3.3. Terrestrial Environment and Related Ecosystems
  • 28.3.3.1. Arctic
  • 28.3.3.2. Antarctica
  • 28.3.4. Economic Sectors
  • 28.3.4.1. Fisheries
  • 28.3.4.2. Forestry and Farming
  • 28.3.4.3. Infrastructure, Transportation, and Terrestrial Resources
  • 28.4. Human Adaptation
  • 28.5. Research and Data Gaps
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 28.1: What will be the net socioeconomic impacts of change in the polar regions?
  • 28.2: Why are changes in sea ice so important to the polar regions?
  • 29 Small Islands
  • Executive Summary
  • 29.1. Introduction
  • 29.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 29.3. Observed Impacts of Climate Change, Including Detection and Attribution
  • 29.3.1. Observed Impacts on Island Coasts and Marine Biophysical Systems
  • 29.3.1.1. Sea Level Rise, Inundation, and Shoreline Change
  • 29.3.1.2. Coastal Ecosystem Change on Small Islands: Coral Reefs and Coastal Wetlands
  • 29.3.2. Observed Impacts on Terrestrial Systems: Island Biodiversity and Water Resources
  • 29.3.3. Observed Impacts on Human Systems in Small Islands
  • 29.3.3.1. Observed Impacts on Island Settlements and Tourism
  • 29.3.3.2. Observed Impacts on Human Health
  • 29.3.3.3. Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Relocation and Migration
  • 29.3.3.4. Observed Impacts on Island Economies
  • 29.3.4. Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Small Islands
  • 29.4. Projected Integrated Climate Change Impacts
  • 29.4.1. Non-formal Scenario-based Projected Impacts
  • 29.4.2. Projected Impacts for Islands Based on Scenario Projections
  • 29.4.3. Representative Concentration Pathway Projections and Implications for Small Islands
  • 29.5. Inter-and Intra-regional Transboundary Impacts on Small Islands
  • 29.5.1. Large Ocean Waves from Distant Sources
  • 29.5.2. Transcontinental Dust Clouds and Their Impact
  • 29.5.3. Movement and Impact of Introduced and Invasive Species across Boundaries
  • 29.5.4. Spread of Aquatic Pathogens within Island Regions
  • 29.5.5. Transboundary Movements and Human Health
  • 29.6. Adaptation and Management of Risks
  • 29.6.1. Addressing Current Vulnerabilities on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2. Practical Experiences of Adaptation on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2.1. Building Adaptive Capacity with Traditional Knowledge, Technologies, and Skills on Small I
  • 29.6.2.2. Addressing Risks on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2.3. Working Collectively to Address Climate Impacts on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2.4. Addressing Long-Term Climate Impacts and Migration on Small Islands
  • 29.6.3. Barriers and Limits to Adaptation in Small Island Settings
  • 29.6.4. Mainstreaming and Integrating Climate Change into Development Plans and Policies
  • 29.7. Adaptation and Mitigation Interactions
  • 29.7.1. Assumptions/Uncertainties Associated with Adaptation and Mitigation Responses
  • 29.7.2. Potential Synergies and Conflicts
  • 29.8. Facilitating Adaptation and Avoiding Maladaptation
  • 29.9. Research and Data Gaps
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 29.1: Why is it difficult to detect and attribute changes on small islands to climate change?
  • 29.2: Why is the cost of adaptation to climate change so high in small islands?
  • 29.3: Is it appropriate to transfer adaptation and mitigation strategies between and within small is
  • 30 The Ocean
  • Executive Summary
  • 30.1. Introduction
  • 30.1.1. Major Sub-regions within the Ocean
  • 30.1.2. Detection and Attribution of Climate Change and Ocean Acidification in Ocean Sub-regions
  • 30.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 30.3. Regional Changes and Projections of Future Ocean Conditions
  • 30.3.1. Physical Changes
  • 30.3.1.1. Heat Content and Temperature
  • 30.3.1.2. Sea Level
  • 30.3.1.3. Ocean Circulation, Surface Wind, and Waves
  • 30.3.1.4. Solar Insolation and Clouds
  • 30.3.1.5. Storm Systems
  • 30.3.1.6. Thermal Stratification
  • 30.3.2. Chemical Changes
  • 30.3.2.1. Surface Salinity
  • 30.3.2.2. Ocean Acidification
  • 30.3.2.3. Oxygen Concentration
  • 30.4. Global Patterns in the Response of Marine Organisms to Climate Change and Ocean Acidification
  • 30.5. Regional Impacts, Risks, and Vulnerabilities: Present and Future
  • 30.5.1. High-Latitude Spring Bloom Systems
  • 30.5.1.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.1.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.2. Equatorial Upwelling Systems
  • 30.5.2.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.2.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.3. Semi-Enclosed Seas
  • 30.5.3.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.3.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.4. Coastal Boundary Systems
  • 30.5.4.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.4.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.5. Eastern Boundary Upwelling Ecosystems
  • 30.5.5.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.5.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.6. Subtropical Gyres
  • 30.5.6.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.6.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.7. Deep Sea (>1000 m)
  • 30.5.7.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.7.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.8. Detection and Attribution of Climate Change Impacts with Confidence Levels
  • 30.6. Sectoral Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation Responses
  • 30.6.1. Natural Ecosystem Services
  • 30.6.2. Economic Sectors
  • 30.6.2.1. Fisheries and Aquaculture
  • 30.6.2.2. Tourism
  • 30.6.2.3. Shipping
  • 30.6.2.4. Offshore Energy and Mineral Resource Extraction and Supply
  • 30.6.3. Human Health
  • 30.6.4. Ocean-Based Mitigation
  • 30.6.4.1. Deep Sea Carbon Sequestration
  • 30.6.4.2. Offshore Renewable Energy
  • 30.6.5. Maritime Security and Related Operations
  • 30.7. Synthesis and Conclusions
  • 30.7.1. Key Vulnerabilities and Risks
  • 30.7.2. Global Frameworks for Decision Making
  • 30.7.3. Emerging Issues, Data Gaps, and Research Needs
  • 30.7.3.1. Changing Variability and Marine Impacts
  • 30.7.3.2. Surface Wind, Storms, and Upwelling
  • 30.7.3.3. Declining Oxygen Concentrations
  • 30.7.3.4. Ocean Acidification
  • 30.7.3.5. Net Primary Productivity
  • 30.7.3.6. Movement of Marine Organisms and Ecosystems
  • 30.7.3.7. Understanding Cumulative and Synergistic Impacts
  • 30.7.3.8. Reorganization of Ecosystems and Food Webs
  • 30.7.3.9. Socio-ecological Resilience
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 30.1: Can we reverse the impacts of climate change on the Ocean?
  • 30.2: Does slower warming in the Ocean mean less impact on plants and animals?
  • 30.3: How will marine primary productivity change with ocean warming and acidification?
  • 30.4: Will climate change increase the number of “dead zones” in the Ocean?
  • 30.5: How can we use non-climate factors to manage climate change impacts on the Ocean?
  • Annex I Authors and Expert Reviewers
  • Annex II Glossary
  • Annex III Acronyms
  • Annex IV List of Major IPCC Reports
  • Index