Climate Change 2014 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Part B: Regional Aspects: Volume 2, Regional Aspects

Höfundur: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (Útgáfa: 1)
Climate Change 2014 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Part B: Regional Aspects: Volume 2, Regional Aspects

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This latest Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) will again form the standard reference for all those concerned with climate change and its consequences, including students, researchers and policy makers in environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, ecology, atmospheric chemistry and environmental policy.

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Útgefandi
Cambridge University Press
ISBN
9781316236574
Print ISBN
9781107058163
Format
Page Fidelity (PDF)
Útgáfa
1
Höfundar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Tungumál
English
Útgefið
2014-12-29
Prent takmörkun á líftíma
10
Prent takmörkun
5
Afritunar takmörkun
5

Kaflar

  • Title
  • Copyright
  • Contents
  • Chapters 21-30
  • 21 Regional Context
  • Executive Summary
  • 21.1. Introduction
  • 21.2. Defining Regional Context
  • 21.2.1. Decision-Making Context
  • 21.2.2. Defining Regions
  • 21.2.3. Introduction to Methods and Information
  • 21.3. Synthesis of Key Regional Issues
  • 21.3.1. Vulnerabilities and Impacts
  • 21.3.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 21.3.1.2. Future Impacts and Vulnerability
  • 21.3.2. Adaptation
  • 21.3.2.1. Similarities and Differences in Regions
  • 21.3.2.2. Adaptation Examples in Multiple Regions
  • 21.3.2.3. Adaptation Examples in Single Regions
  • 21.3.3. Climate System
  • 21.3.3.1. Global Context
  • 21.3.3.2. Dynamically and Statistically Downscaled Climate Projections
  • 21.3.3.3. Projected Changes in Hydroclimatic Regimes, Major Modes of Variability, and Regional Circu
  • 21.3.3.4. Projected Changes in Extreme Climate Events
  • 21.3.3.5. Projected Changes in Sea Level
  • 21.3.3.6. Projected Changes in Air Quality
  • 21.4. Cross-Regional Phenomena
  • 21.4.1. Trade and Financial Flows
  • 21.4.1.1. International Trade and Emissions
  • 21.4.1.2. Trade and Financial Flows as Factors Influencing Vulnerability
  • 21.4.1.3. Sensitivity of International Trade to Climate
  • 21.4.2. Human Migration
  • 21.4.3. Migration of Natural Ecosystems
  • 21.5. Analysis and Reliability of Approaches to Regional Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability Stud
  • 21.5.1. Analyses of Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity
  • 21.5.1.1. Indicators and Indices
  • 21.5.1.2. Hotspots
  • 21.5.2. Impacts Analyses
  • 21.5.3. Development and Application of Baseline and Scenario Information
  • 21.5.3.1. Baseline Information: Context, Current Status, and Recent Advances
  • 21.5.3.2. Development of Projections and Scenarios
  • 21.5.3.3. Credibility of Projections and Scenarios
  • 21.6. Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 21.1: How does this report stand alongside previous assessments for informing regional adaptation?
  • 21.2: Do local and regional impacts of climate change affect other parts of the world?
  • 21.3: What regional information should I take into account for climate risk management for the 20-ye
  • 21.4: Is the highest resolution climate projection the best to use for performing impacts assessment
  • 22 Africa
  • Executive Summary
  • 22.1. Introduction
  • 22.1.1. Structure of the Regions
  • 22.1.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 22.1.2.1. Regional Special Report and Assessment Reports
  • 22.1.2.2. Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Ch
  • 22.2. Observed Climate Trends and Future Projections
  • 22.2.1. Temperature
  • 22.2.1.1. Observed Trends
  • 22.2.1.2. Projected Trends
  • 22.2.2. Precipitation
  • 22.2.2.1. Observed Changes
  • 22.2.2.2. Projected Changes
  • 22.2.3. Observed and Projected Changes in Extreme Temperature and Rainfall
  • 22.3. Vulnerability and Impacts
  • 22.3.1. Socioeconomic and Environmental Context Influencing Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity
  • 22.3.2. Ecosystems
  • 22.3.2.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • 22.3.2.2. Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 22.3.2.3. Coastal and Ocean Systems
  • 22.3.3. Water Resources
  • 22.3.4. Agriculture and Food Security
  • 22.3.4.1. Crops
  • 22.3.4.2. Livestock
  • 22.3.4.3. Agricultural Pests, Diseases, and Weeds
  • 22.3.4.4. Fisheries
  • 22.3.4.5. Food Security
  • 22.3.5. Health
  • 22.3.5.1. Introduction
  • 22.3.5.2. Food-and Water-Borne Diseases
  • 22.3.5.3. Nutrition
  • 22.3.5.4. Vector-Borne Diseases and Other Climate-Sensitive Health Outcomes
  • 22.3.6. Urbanization
  • 22.4. Adaptation
  • 22.4.1. Introduction
  • 22.4.2. Adaptation Needs, Gaps, and Adaptive Capacity
  • 22.4.3. Adaptation, Equity, and Sustainable Development
  • 22.4.4. Experiences in Building the Governance System for Adaptation, and Lessons Learned
  • 22.4.4.1. Introduction
  • 22.4.4.2. Regional and National Adaptation Planning and Implementation
  • 22.4.4.3. Institutional Frameworks for Adaptation
  • 22.4.4.4. Subnational Adaptation Governance
  • 22.4.4.5. Community-Based Adaptation and Local Institutions
  • 22.4.4.6. Adaptation Decision Making and Monitoring
  • 22.4.5. Experiences with Adaptation Measures in Africa and Lessons Learned
  • 22.4.5.1. Overview
  • 22.4.5.2. Climate Risk Reduction, Risk Transfer, and Livelihood Diversification
  • 22.4.5.3. Adaptation as a Participatory Learning Process
  • 22.4.5.4. Knowledge Development and Sharing
  • 22.4.5.5. Communication, Education, and Capacity Development
  • 22.4.5.6. Ecosystem Services, Biodiversity, and Natural Resource Management
  • 22.4.5.7. Technological and Infrastructural Adaptation Responses
  • 22.4.5.8. Maladaptation Risks
  • 22.4.6. Barriers and Limits to Adaptation in Africa
  • 22.5. Key Risks for Africa
  • 22.6. Emerging Issues
  • 22.6.1. Human Security
  • 22.6.1.1. Violent Conflict
  • 22.6.1.2. Migration
  • 22.6.2. Integrated Adaptation/Mitigation Approaches
  • 22.6.3. Biofuels and Land Use
  • 22.6.4. Climate Finance and Management
  • 22.7. Research Gaps
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 22.1: How could climate change impact food security in Africa?
  • 22.2: What role does climate change play with regard to violent conflict in Africa?
  • 23 Europe
  • Executive Summary
  • 23.1. Introduction
  • 23.1.1. Scope and Route Map of Chapter
  • 23.1.2. Policy Frameworks
  • 23.1.3. Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 23.2. Current and Future Trends
  • 23.2.1. Non-Climate Trends
  • 23.2.2. Observed and Projected Climate Change
  • 23.2.2.1. Observed Climate Change
  • 23.2.2.2. Projected Climate Changes
  • 23.2.2.3. Projected Changes in Climate Extremes
  • 23.2.3. Observed and Projected Trends in Riverflow and Drought
  • 23.3. Implications of Climate Change for Production Systems and Physical Infrastructure
  • 23.3.1. Settlements
  • 23.3.1.1. Coastal Flooding
  • 23.3.1.2. River and Pluvial Flooding
  • 23.3.1.3. Windstorms
  • 23.3.1.4. Mass Movements and Avalanches
  • 23.3.2. Built Environment
  • 23.3.3. Transport
  • 23.3.4. Energy Production, Transmission, and Use
  • 23.3.5. Industry and Manufacturing
  • 23.3.6. Tourism
  • 23.3.7. Insurance and Banking
  • 23.4. Implications of Climate Change for Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, and Bioenergy Production
  • 23.4.1. Plant (Food) Production
  • 23.4.2. Livestock Production
  • 23.4.3. Water Resources and Agriculture
  • 23.4.4. Forestry
  • 23.4.5. Bioenergy Production
  • 23.4.6. Fisheries and Aquaculture
  • 23.5. Implications of Climate Change for Health and Social Welfare
  • 23.5.1. Human Population Health
  • 23.5.2. Critical Infrastructure
  • 23.5.3. Social Impacts
  • 23.5.4. Cultural Heritage and Landscapes
  • 23.6. Implications of Climate Change for the Protection of Environmental Quality and Biological Cons
  • 23.6.1. Air Quality
  • 23.6.2. Soil Quality and Land Degradation
  • 23.6.3. Water Quality
  • 23.6.4. Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 23.6.5. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
  • 23.7. Cross-Sectoral Adaptation Decision Making and Risk Management
  • 23.7.1. Coastal Zone Management
  • 23.7.2. Integrated Water Resource Management
  • 23.7.3. Disaster Risk Reduction and Risk Management
  • 23.7.4. Land Use Planning
  • 23.7.5. Rural Development
  • 23.7.6. Economic Assessments of Adaptation
  • 23.7.7. Barriers and Limits to Adaptation
  • 23.8. Co-benefits and Unintended Consequences of Adaptation and Mitigation
  • 23.8.1. Production and Infrastructure
  • 23.8.2. Agriculture, Forestry, and Bioenergy
  • 23.8.3. Social and Health Impacts
  • 23.8.4. Environmental Quality and Biological Conservation
  • 23.9. Synthesis of Key Findings
  • 23.9.1. Key Vulnerabilities
  • 23.9.2. Climate Change Impacts Outside Europe and Inter-regional Implications
  • 23.9.3. Effects of Observed Climate Change in Europe
  • 23.9.4. Key Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 23.1: Will I still be able to live on the coast in Europe?
  • 23.2: Will climate change introduce new infectious diseases into Europe?
  • 23.3: Will Europe need to import more food because of climate change?
  • 24 Asia
  • Executive Summary
  • 24.1. Introduction
  • 24.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 24.3. Observed and Projected Climate Change
  • 24.3.1. Observed Climate Change
  • 24.3.1.1. Temperature
  • 24.3.1.2. Precipitation and Monsoons
  • 24.3.1.3. Tropical and Extratropical Cyclones
  • 24.3.1.4. Surface Wind Speeds
  • 24.3.1.5. Oceans
  • 24.3.2. Projected Climate Change
  • 24.3.2.1. Tropical and Extratropical Cyclones
  • 24.3.2.2. Monsoons
  • 24.3.2.3. Oceans
  • 24.4. Observed and Projected Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation
  • 24.4.1. Freshwater Resources
  • 24.4.1.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.1.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.1.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.1.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.1.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.2. Terrestrial and Inland Water Systems
  • 24.4.2.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.2.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.2.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.2.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.2.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.3. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas
  • 24.4.3.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.3.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.3.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.3.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.3.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.4. Food Production Systems and Food Security
  • 24.4.4.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.4.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.4.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.4.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.4.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.5. Human Settlements, Industry, and Infrastructure
  • 24.4.5.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.5.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.5.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.5.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.5.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.6. Human Health, Security, Livelihoods, and Poverty
  • 24.4.6.1. Sub-regional Diversity
  • 24.4.6.2. Observed Impacts
  • 24.4.6.3. Projected Impacts
  • 24.4.6.4. Vulnerabilities to Key Drivers
  • 24.4.6.5. Adaptation Options
  • 24.4.7. Valuation of Impacts and Adaptation
  • 24.5. Adaptation and Managing Risks
  • 24.5.1. Conservation of Natural Resources
  • 24.5.2. Flood Risks and Coastal Inundation
  • 24.5.3. Economic Growth and Equitable Development
  • 24.5.4. Mainstreaming and Institutional Barriers
  • 24.5.5. Role of Higher Education in Adaptation and Risk Management
  • 24.6. Adaptation and Mitigation Interactions
  • 24.7. Intra-regional and Inter-regional Issues
  • 24.7.1. Transboundary Pollution
  • 24.7.2. Trade and Economy
  • 24.7.3. Migration and Population Displacement
  • 24.8. Research and Data Gaps
  • 24.9. Case Studies
  • 24.9.1. Transboundary Adaptation Planning and Management—Lower Mekong River Basin
  • 24.9.2. Glaciers of Central Asia
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 24.1: What will the projected impact of future climate change be on freshwater resources in Asia?
  • 24.2: How will climate change affect food production and food security in Asia?
  • 24.3: Who is most at risk from climate change in Asia?
  • 25 Australasia
  • Executive Summary
  • 25.1. Introduction and Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 25.2. Observed and Projected Climate Change
  • 25.3. Socioeconomic Trends Influencing Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity
  • 25.3.1. Economic, Demographic, and Social Trends
  • 25.3.2. Use and Relevance of Socioeconomic Scenarios in Adaptive Capacity/Vulnerability Assessments
  • 25.4. Cross-Sectoral Adaptation: Approaches, Effectiveness, and Constraints
  • 25.4.1. Frameworks, Governance, and Institutional Arrangements
  • 25.4.2. Constraints on Adaptation and Leading Practice Models
  • 25.4.3. Psychological and Sociocultural Factors Influencing Impacts of and Adaptation to Climate Cha
  • 25.5. Freshwater Resources
  • 25.5.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.5.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.5.3. Adaptation
  • 25.6. Natural Ecosystems
  • 25.6.1. Inland Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • 25.6.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.6.1.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.6.1.3. Adaptation
  • 25.6.2. Coastal and Ocean Ecosystems
  • 25.6.2.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.6.2.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.6.2.3. Adaptation
  • 25.7. Major Industries
  • 25.7.1. Production Forestry
  • 25.7.1.1. Observed and Projected Impacts
  • 25.7.1.2. Adaptation
  • 25.7.2. Agriculture
  • 25.7.2.1. Projected Impacts and Adaptation—Livestock Systems
  • 25.7.2.2. Projected Impacts and Adaptation—Cropping
  • 25.7.2.3. Integrated Adaptation Perspectives
  • 25.7.3. Mining
  • 25.7.4. Energy Supply, Demand, and Transmission
  • 25.7.5. Tourism
  • 25.7.5.1. Projected Impacts
  • 25.7.5.2. Adaptation
  • 25.8. Human Society
  • 25.8.1. Human Health
  • 25.8.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 25.8.1.2. Projected Impacts
  • 25.8.1.3. Adaptation
  • 25.8.2. Indigenous Peoples
  • 25.8.2.1. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders
  • 25.8.2.2. New Zealand Maori
  • 25.9. Interactions among Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation Responses
  • 25.9.1. Interactions among Local-Level Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation Responses
  • 25.9.2. Intra-and Inter-regional Flow-on Effects among Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation
  • 25.10. Synthesis and Regional Key Risks
  • 25.10.1. Economy-wide Impacts and the Potential of Mitigation to Reduce Risks
  • 25.10.2. Regional Key Risks as a Function of Mitigation and Adaptation
  • 25.10.3. Challenges to Adaptation in Managing Key Risks, and Limits to Adaptation
  • 25.11. Filling Knowledge Gaps to Improve Management of Climate Risks
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 25.1: How can we adapt to climate change if projected future changes remain uncertain?
  • 25.2: What are the key risks from climate change to Australia and New Zealand?
  • 26 North America
  • Executive Summary
  • 26.1. Introduction
  • Findings from the Fourth Assessment Report
  • Observed Impacts and Processes Associated with Vulnerability
  • 26.2. Key Trends Influencing Risk, Vulnerability, and Capacities for Adaptation
  • 26.2.1. Demographic and Socioeconomic Trends
  • 26.2.1.1. Current Trends
  • 26.2.1.2. Future Trends
  • 26.2.2. Physical Climate Trends
  • 26.2.2.1. Current Trends
  • 26.2.2.2. Climate Change Projections
  • 26.3. Water Resources and Management
  • 26.3.1. Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources
  • 26.3.1.1. Droughts and Floods
  • 26.3.1.2. Mean Annual Streamflow
  • 26.3.1.3. Snowmelt
  • 26.3.2. Projected Climate Change Impacts and Risks
  • 26.3.2.1. Water Supply
  • 26.3.2.2. Water Quality
  • 26.3.2.3. Flooding
  • 26.3.2.4. Instream Uses
  • 26.3.3. Adaptation
  • 26.4. Ecosystems and Biodiversity
  • 26.4.1. Overview
  • 26.4.2. Tree Mortality and Forest Infestation
  • 26.4.2.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.4.2.2. Projected Impacts and Risks
  • 26.4.3. Coastal Ecosystems
  • 26.4.3.1. Observed Climate Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 26.4.3.2. Projected Impacts and Risks
  • 26.4.4. Ecosystems Adaptation, and Mitigation
  • 26.5. Agriculture and Food Security
  • 26.5.1. Observed Climate Change Impacts
  • 26.5.2. Projected Climate Change Risks
  • 26.5.3. A Closer Look at Mexico
  • 26.5.4. Adaptation
  • 26.6. Human Health
  • 26.6.1. Observed Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Trends
  • 26.6.1.1. Storm-Related Impacts
  • 26.6.1.2. Temperature Extremes
  • 26.6.1.3. Air Quality
  • 26.6.1.4. Pollen
  • 26.6.1.5. Water-borne Diseases
  • 26.6.1.6. Vector-borne Diseases
  • 26.6.2. Projected Climate Change Impacts
  • 26.6.3. Adaptation Responses
  • 26.7. Key Economic Sectors and Services
  • 26.7.1. Energy
  • 26.7.1.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.1.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.1.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.2. Transportation
  • 26.7.2.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.2.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.2.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.3. Mining
  • 26.7.3.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.3.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.3.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.4. Manufacturing
  • 26.7.4.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.4.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.4.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.5. Construction and Housing
  • 26.7.5.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.5.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.5.3. Adaptation
  • 26.7.6. Insurance
  • 26.7.6.1. Observed Impacts
  • 26.7.6.2. Projected Impacts
  • 26.7.6.3. Adaptation
  • 26.8. Urban and Rural Settlements
  • 26.8.1. Observed Weather and Climate Impacts
  • 26.8.2. Observed Factors and Processes Associated with Vulnerability
  • 26.8.2.1. Urban Settlements
  • 26.8.2.2. Rural Settlements
  • 26.8.3. Projected Climate Risks on Urban and Rural Settlements
  • 26.8.4. Adaptation
  • 26.8.4.1. Evidence of Adaptation
  • 26.8.4.2. Opportunities and Constraints
  • 26.9. Federal and Subnational Level Adaptation
  • 26.9.1. Federal Level Adaptation
  • 26.9.2. Subnational Level Adaptation
  • 26.9.3. Barriers to Adaptation
  • 26.9.4. Maladaptation, Trade-Offs, and Co-benefits
  • 26.10. Key Risks, Uncertainties, Knowledge Gaps, and Research Needs
  • 26.10.1. Key Multi-sectoral Risks
  • 26.10.2. Uncertainties, Knowledge Gaps, and Research Needs
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 26.1: What impact are climate stressors having on North America?
  • 26.2: Can adaptation reduce the adverse impacts of climate stressors in North America?
  • 27 Central and South America
  • Executive Summary
  • 27.1. Introduction
  • 27.1.1. The Central and South America Region
  • 27.1.2. Summary of the Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Ext
  • 27.1.2.1. Fourth Assessment Report Findings
  • 27.1.2.2. IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Clima
  • 27.2. Major Recent Changes and Projections in the Region
  • 27.2.1. Climatic Stressors
  • 27.2.1.1. Climate Trends, Long-Term Changes in Variability, and Extremes
  • 27.2.1.2. Climate Projections
  • 27.2.2. Non-Climatic Stressors
  • 27.2.2.1. Trends and Projections in Land Use and Land Use Change
  • 27.2.2.2. Trends and Projections in Socioeconomic Conditions
  • 27.3. Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.1. Freshwater Resources
  • 27.3.1.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.1.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.2. Terrestrial and Inland Water Systems
  • 27.3.2.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.2.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.3. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas
  • 27.3.3.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.3.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.4. Food Production Systems and Food Security
  • 27.3.4.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.4.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.5. Human Settlements, Industry, and Infrastructure
  • 27.3.5.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.5.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.6. Renewable Energy
  • 27.3.6.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.6.2. Adaptation Practices
  • 27.3.7. Human Health
  • 27.3.7.1. Observed and Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 27.3.7.2. Adaptation Strategies and Practices
  • 27.4. Adaptation Opportunities, Constraints, and Limits
  • 27.4.1. Adaptation Needs and Gaps
  • 27.4.2. Practical Experiences of Autonomous and Planned Adaptation, Including Lessons Learned
  • 27.4.3. Observed and Expected Barriers to Adaptation
  • 27.5. Interactions between Adaptation and Mitigation
  • 27.6. Case Studies
  • 27.6.1. Hydropower
  • 27.6.2. Payment for Ecosystem Services
  • 27.7. Data and Research Gaps
  • 27.8. Conclusions
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 27.1: What is the impact of glacier retreat on natural and human systems in the tropical Andes?
  • 27.2: Can payment for ecosystem services be used as an effective way for helping local communities t
  • 28 Polar Regions
  • Executive Summary
  • 28.1. Introduction
  • 28.2. Observed Changes and Vulnerability under Multiple Stressors
  • 28.2.1. Hydrology and Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 28.2.1.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.1.2. Antarctic
  • 28.2.2. Oceanography and Marine Ecosystems
  • 28.2.2.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.2.2. Antarctica
  • 28.2.3. Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • 28.2.3.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.3.2. Antarctica
  • 28.2.4. Health and Well-being of Arctic Residents
  • 28.2.4.1. Direct Impacts of a Changing Climate on the Health of Arctic Residents
  • 28.2.4.2. Indirect Impacts of Climate Change on the Health of Arctic Residents
  • 28.2.5. Indigenous Peoples and Traditional Knowledge
  • 28.2.6. Economic Sectors
  • 28.2.6.1. Arctic
  • 28.2.6.2. Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
  • 28.3. Key Projected Impacts and Vulnerabilities
  • 28.3.1. Hydrology and Freshwater Ecosystems
  • 28.3.1.1. Arctic
  • 28.3.1.2. Antarctica
  • 28.3.2. Oceanography and Marine Ecosystems
  • 28.3.2.1. Ocean Acidification in the Arctic and Antarctic
  • 28.3.2.2. Arctic
  • 28.3.2.3. Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
  • 28.3.3. Terrestrial Environment and Related Ecosystems
  • 28.3.3.1. Arctic
  • 28.3.3.2. Antarctica
  • 28.3.4. Economic Sectors
  • 28.3.4.1. Fisheries
  • 28.3.4.2. Forestry and Farming
  • 28.3.4.3. Infrastructure, Transportation, and Terrestrial Resources
  • 28.4. Human Adaptation
  • 28.5. Research and Data Gaps
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 28.1: What will be the net socioeconomic impacts of change in the polar regions?
  • 28.2: Why are changes in sea ice so important to the polar regions?
  • 29 Small Islands
  • Executive Summary
  • 29.1. Introduction
  • 29.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 29.3. Observed Impacts of Climate Change, Including Detection and Attribution
  • 29.3.1. Observed Impacts on Island Coasts and Marine Biophysical Systems
  • 29.3.1.1. Sea Level Rise, Inundation, and Shoreline Change
  • 29.3.1.2. Coastal Ecosystem Change on Small Islands: Coral Reefs and Coastal Wetlands
  • 29.3.2. Observed Impacts on Terrestrial Systems: Island Biodiversity and Water Resources
  • 29.3.3. Observed Impacts on Human Systems in Small Islands
  • 29.3.3.1. Observed Impacts on Island Settlements and Tourism
  • 29.3.3.2. Observed Impacts on Human Health
  • 29.3.3.3. Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Relocation and Migration
  • 29.3.3.4. Observed Impacts on Island Economies
  • 29.3.4. Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Small Islands
  • 29.4. Projected Integrated Climate Change Impacts
  • 29.4.1. Non-formal Scenario-based Projected Impacts
  • 29.4.2. Projected Impacts for Islands Based on Scenario Projections
  • 29.4.3. Representative Concentration Pathway Projections and Implications for Small Islands
  • 29.5. Inter-and Intra-regional Transboundary Impacts on Small Islands
  • 29.5.1. Large Ocean Waves from Distant Sources
  • 29.5.2. Transcontinental Dust Clouds and Their Impact
  • 29.5.3. Movement and Impact of Introduced and Invasive Species across Boundaries
  • 29.5.4. Spread of Aquatic Pathogens within Island Regions
  • 29.5.5. Transboundary Movements and Human Health
  • 29.6. Adaptation and Management of Risks
  • 29.6.1. Addressing Current Vulnerabilities on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2. Practical Experiences of Adaptation on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2.1. Building Adaptive Capacity with Traditional Knowledge, Technologies, and Skills on Small I
  • 29.6.2.2. Addressing Risks on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2.3. Working Collectively to Address Climate Impacts on Small Islands
  • 29.6.2.4. Addressing Long-Term Climate Impacts and Migration on Small Islands
  • 29.6.3. Barriers and Limits to Adaptation in Small Island Settings
  • 29.6.4. Mainstreaming and Integrating Climate Change into Development Plans and Policies
  • 29.7. Adaptation and Mitigation Interactions
  • 29.7.1. Assumptions/Uncertainties Associated with Adaptation and Mitigation Responses
  • 29.7.2. Potential Synergies and Conflicts
  • 29.8. Facilitating Adaptation and Avoiding Maladaptation
  • 29.9. Research and Data Gaps
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 29.1: Why is it difficult to detect and attribute changes on small islands to climate change?
  • 29.2: Why is the cost of adaptation to climate change so high in small islands?
  • 29.3: Is it appropriate to transfer adaptation and mitigation strategies between and within small is
  • 30 The Ocean
  • Executive Summary
  • 30.1. Introduction
  • 30.1.1. Major Sub-regions within the Ocean
  • 30.1.2. Detection and Attribution of Climate Change and Ocean Acidification in Ocean Sub-regions
  • 30.2. Major Conclusions from Previous Assessments
  • 30.3. Regional Changes and Projections of Future Ocean Conditions
  • 30.3.1. Physical Changes
  • 30.3.1.1. Heat Content and Temperature
  • 30.3.1.2. Sea Level
  • 30.3.1.3. Ocean Circulation, Surface Wind, and Waves
  • 30.3.1.4. Solar Insolation and Clouds
  • 30.3.1.5. Storm Systems
  • 30.3.1.6. Thermal Stratification
  • 30.3.2. Chemical Changes
  • 30.3.2.1. Surface Salinity
  • 30.3.2.2. Ocean Acidification
  • 30.3.2.3. Oxygen Concentration
  • 30.4. Global Patterns in the Response of Marine Organisms to Climate Change and Ocean Acidification
  • 30.5. Regional Impacts, Risks, and Vulnerabilities: Present and Future
  • 30.5.1. High-Latitude Spring Bloom Systems
  • 30.5.1.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.1.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.2. Equatorial Upwelling Systems
  • 30.5.2.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.2.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.3. Semi-Enclosed Seas
  • 30.5.3.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.3.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.4. Coastal Boundary Systems
  • 30.5.4.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.4.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.5. Eastern Boundary Upwelling Ecosystems
  • 30.5.5.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.5.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.6. Subtropical Gyres
  • 30.5.6.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.6.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.7. Deep Sea (>1000 m)
  • 30.5.7.1. Observed Changes and Potential Impacts
  • 30.5.7.2. Key Risks and Vulnerabilities
  • 30.5.8. Detection and Attribution of Climate Change Impacts with Confidence Levels
  • 30.6. Sectoral Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation Responses
  • 30.6.1. Natural Ecosystem Services
  • 30.6.2. Economic Sectors
  • 30.6.2.1. Fisheries and Aquaculture
  • 30.6.2.2. Tourism
  • 30.6.2.3. Shipping
  • 30.6.2.4. Offshore Energy and Mineral Resource Extraction and Supply
  • 30.6.3. Human Health
  • 30.6.4. Ocean-Based Mitigation
  • 30.6.4.1. Deep Sea Carbon Sequestration
  • 30.6.4.2. Offshore Renewable Energy
  • 30.6.5. Maritime Security and Related Operations
  • 30.7. Synthesis and Conclusions
  • 30.7.1. Key Vulnerabilities and Risks
  • 30.7.2. Global Frameworks for Decision Making
  • 30.7.3. Emerging Issues, Data Gaps, and Research Needs
  • 30.7.3.1. Changing Variability and Marine Impacts
  • 30.7.3.2. Surface Wind, Storms, and Upwelling
  • 30.7.3.3. Declining Oxygen Concentrations
  • 30.7.3.4. Ocean Acidification
  • 30.7.3.5. Net Primary Productivity
  • 30.7.3.6. Movement of Marine Organisms and Ecosystems
  • 30.7.3.7. Understanding Cumulative and Synergistic Impacts
  • 30.7.3.8. Reorganization of Ecosystems and Food Webs
  • 30.7.3.9. Socio-ecological Resilience
  • References
  • Frequently Asked Questions
  • 30.1: Can we reverse the impacts of climate change on the Ocean?
  • 30.2: Does slower warming in the Ocean mean less impact on plants and animals?
  • 30.3: How will marine primary productivity change with ocean warming and acidification?
  • 30.4: Will climate change increase the number of “dead zones” in the Ocean?
  • 30.5: How can we use non-climate factors to manage climate change impacts on the Ocean?
  • Annex I Authors and Expert Reviewers
  • Annex II Glossary
  • Annex III Acronyms
  • Annex IV List of Major IPCC Reports
  • Index