Biological Soil Crusts: An Organizing Principle in Drylands

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This volume summarizes our current understanding of biological soil crusts (biocrusts), which are omnipresent in dryland regions. Since they cover the soil surface, they influence, or even control, all surface exchange processes. Being one of the oldest terrestrial communities, biocrusts comprise a high diversity of cyanobacteria, algae, lichens and bryophytes together with uncounted bacteria, and fungi.

The authors show that biocrusts are an integral part of dryland ecosystems, stabilizing soils, influencing plant germination and growth, and playing a key role in carbon, nitrogen and water cycling. Initial attempts have been made to use biocrusts as models in ecological theory. On the other hand, biocrusts are endangered by local disruptions and global change, highlighting the need for enhanced recovery methods.

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Útgefandi: Springer Nature

ISBN: 9783319302140

Print ISBN: 9783319302126

Format: Page Fidelity (PDF)

Útgáfa: 0

Höfundar

Tungumál: English

Útgefið: 2016-05-21

Prent takmörkun á líftíma: 100

Prent takmörkun: 2

Afritunar takmörkun: 2

Flokkar: Náttúruvísindi Umhverfisfræði Verkfræði

Efnisflokkar: Vísindi › Almennt Náttúra › Umhverfisvernd & Verndun Vísindi › Vistfræði Tækni og verkfræði › Almennt

Kaflar

Preface
Contents
Part I: Introduction
Chapter 1: Biological Soil Crusts as an Organizing Principle in Drylands
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Biocrusts as an Organizing Principle, and the Critical Zone, in Deserts
1.3 Under-Examined Roles of Biocrusts in Dryland Ecosystems
1.3.1 Islands of Fertility or Oceans of Depletion?
1.3.2 Biocrusts as the Transformative Zone
1.3.3 Biocrusts Structuring Vascular Plant Communities
1.3.4 Biocrusts Creating Biodiversity Hotspots in Drylands
1.3.5 Challenging the Definition of Lichen Individuals and the Boundary Between Being Heterotrophic
1.4 Can Biocrusts Be Used as a Vital Sign of Ecosystem Health?
1.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: How Biological Soil Crusts Became Recognized as a Functional Unit: A Selective History
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Two Lines that Lead to the Recognition of Biocrusts
2.2.1 The Floristic, Botanic Approach
2.2.1.1 Lichens
2.2.1.2 Bryophytes
2.2.1.3 Cyanobacteria and Green Algae
2.2.2 The Soil/Agronomy Scientific Approach
2.3 Biological Soil Crusts as a Functional Ecological Unit
References
Part II: Morphology, Composition, and Distribution of Biological Soil Crusts at Different Scales
Chapter 3: Terrestrial Ecosystems in the Precambrian
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Paleosols
3.3 Microfossils
3.4 Sedimentary Biostructures
3.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Cyanobacteria and Algae of Biological Soil Crusts
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Cyanobacterial and Eukaryotic Algal Diversity
4.2.1 Role and Diversity of Biocrust Cyanobacteria
4.2.2 Role and Diversity of Eukaryotic Algae in Biocrusts
4.3 Methodological Aspects
4.3.1 Sampling
4.3.2 Identification, Cultures, and Morphological Approach
4.3.3 Molecular Approaches
4.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Bacteria and Non-lichenized Fungi Within Biological Soil Crusts
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Bacterial Biomass and Community Composition
5.2.1 Impact of Biocrust Age, Soil, and Vegetation Type on Bacterial Community Structure
5.2.2 Manipulation Experiments: Response of Microbial Communities to Disturbance and Differing Light
5.2.3 Novel Bacterial Species
5.3 Non-lichenized Fungi
5.4 Lichens as Microbial ``Hubs┬┤┬┤
5.4.1 Life Strategies and Diversity of Lichenicolous Fungi
5.4.2 Bacterial Habitats in Soil Lichens
5.4.3 The Impact of Lichenicolous Fungi on the Lichen-Associated Bacterial Community
5.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Bryophytes Within Biological Soil Crusts
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bryophyte Diversity in Biocrusts
6.2.1 Regional Diversity
6.2.2 Global Moss Diversity
6.2.3 Global Liverwort Diversity
6.3 Bryophyte Establishment in Biocrusts
6.3.1 Establishment in Dryland Biocrusts
6.3.2 Establishment in Polar, Alpine, and Antarctic Biocrusts
6.4 The Role of Substrate in Bryophyte Abundance and Diversity
6.4.1 Calcareous Substrates
6.4.2 Dolomite and Gypsum Substrates
6.4.3 Interactions Between Substrate Chemistry and Aridity
6.5 Adaptive Strategies of Biocrust Bryophytes
6.6 Biocrust Bryophyte Physiological Ecology
6.6.1 Water and Temperature Relations
6.6.2 Reproductive Ecology
6.6.3 Ecological Roles of Biocrust Bryophytes
6.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 7: Structure, Composition, and Function of Biocrust Lichen Communities
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Structure and Morphology of Lichen Biocrusts
7.2.1 The Importance of Fungal Hyphae
7.2.2 The Role of the Lichen Photobiont
7.3 Composition of Biocrust Lichens
7.3.1 Distribution of Biocrust Lichens
7.3.2 Richness and Abundance of Biocrust Lichens
7.3.3 Taxonomy and Identification of Biocrust Lichens
7.3.4 A Morphospecies Approach to Biocrust Lichen Identification
7.4 Functional Roles of Biocrust Lichens
7.4.1 Sampling Biocrust Lichen Communities
7.5 Lichens in Biocrusts: Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 8: Microfauna Within Biological Soil Crusts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Who Are the Microfaunal Inhabitants of Biocrusts?
8.2.1 Protozoa
8.2.2 Nematodes
8.2.3 Tardigrades and Rotifers
8.2.4 Microarthropods
8.3 What Microfauna Do in Soil Crust Ecosystems
8.4 When Are Microfauna Active?
8.5 Where Are Microfauna Found in Biological Soil Crusts?
8.6 How Are Microfauna Affected by Surface Disturbance and Altered Climate?
8.7 Future Directions and Research Priorities
8.7.1 Feeding Behavior
8.7.2 Increased Taxonomic Resolution
8.7.3 Ecological Genomics
8.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Composition and Macrostructure of Biological Soil Crusts
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Abiotic Crust Structure
9.3 Biocrust Structure: Biotic Influences
9.4 Biocrust Structure: Abiotic Influences
9.4.1 Macroclimatic Influences
9.4.2 Mechanical Disturbance
9.4.3 Pedogenic Influences
9.5 Classification of Biocrusts
9.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Controls on Distribution Patterns of Biological Soil Crusts at Micro- to Global Scales
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Nomenclature for Scale
10.2 Determinants of Biocrust Distribution at Different Spatial Scales
10.2.1 Biogeographic Factors
10.2.2 Moisture Availability
10.2.3 Moisture Mode, Seasonality, and Temperature Effects
10.2.4 Soil Properties
10.2.5 Solar Radiation Load
10.2.6 Vegetation Cover and Spatial Patterns
10.2.7 Geomorphological Features
10.3 The Emerging Understanding of Ecoregional Biocrust Distribution in Three Case Studies
10.3.1 Case Study: Ecoregional Patterns in the Sahel (Africa)
10.3.2 Case Study: Ecoregional Patterns on the Colorado Plateau (USA)
10.3.3 Case Study: Ecoregional Patterns in the Mojave Desert (USA)
10.4 Conclusions: Gaps in Our Knowledge and the Way Forward
References
Chapter 11: Hypolithic Communities
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Hypolithic Habitat
11.3 Biodiversity and Biogeography
11.4 Patterns of Hypolith Cover
11.5 Biotic Interactions
11.6 Biogeochemical Transformations
11.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 12: Remote Sensing of Biological Soil Crusts at Different Scales
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Reflectance Spectroscopy of Biocrusts
12.2.1 Spectral Reflectance Characteristics of Biocrusts
12.2.1.1 Different Types of Biocrusts
12.2.1.2 Continuum Removal
12.2.2 Effects of Watering
12.2.3 Effects of Disturbance on the Spectral Characteristics of Biocrusts
12.2.4 Spectral Indicators
12.2.5 Spectral Characteristics Related to CO2 Gas Exchange
12.3 Mapping the Spatial Distribution of Biocrusts
12.3.1 Image Preprocessing
12.3.2 Spectral Indices
12.3.3 Biocrusts as an Element of Complex Spectral Mixtures
12.3.4 Temporal Variability
12.4 Conclusion
References
Part III: Functional Roles of Biological Soil Crusts
Chapter 13: Microstructure and Weathering Processes Within Biological Soil Crusts
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Microstructure of Biological Soil Crusts
13.2.1 Physical Microstructure
13.2.2 Small-Scale Spatial Structure of Biological Components
13.3 Temporal Dynamics: Biological Succession, Structural Maturation, and Weathering
13.3.1 Biological Succession
13.3.2 Structural Development
13.3.3 Weathering and Geochemical Alteration
13.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Patterns and Controls on Nitrogen Cycling of Biological Soil Crusts
14.1 Introduction to Nitrogen Cycling in Biocrusts
14.2 Biocrust Nitrogen Fixation
14.2.1 Studies Measuring Nitrogen Fixation Using the ARA Method
14.2.2 Natural 15N Abundance
14.2.3 Estimates of Annual Biocrust N Fixation
14.3 Nitrogen Release to the Surrounding Substrate
14.4 Biocrust Influence on Soil Inorganic Nitrogen
14.5 Nitrogen Gas Losses from Biocrusts and Biocrusted Soils
14.6 Regulation of Biocrust Nitrogen Transfer in Wind and Water
14.7 Ecosystem Nitrogen Budgets
14.8 Summary of Biocrust N Cycling
14.9 Research Challenges
References
Chapter 15: Carbon Budgets of Biological Soil Crusts at Micro-, Meso-, and Global Scales
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Microscale: Individual Organism Performance
15.2.1 Proposed Methodologies on the Microscale
15.2.2 Available Datasets on the Microscale
15.2.3 Modeling on the Microscale
15.3 The Mesoscale: Net Ecosystem Exchange in Biocrusted Soils
15.3.1 Available Datasets on the Mesoscale
15.4 The Macroscale: Global Carbon Budgets
15.5 General Future Research Needs and Directions
References
Chapter 16: Biological Soil Crusts as Soil Stabilizers
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biocrust Characteristics that Confer Resistance and Resilience to Soil Erosion
16.2.1 Species and Biocrust Developmental Stages Affect Resistance to Wind and Water Erosion
16.2.2 Individual Species Affect Resistance to Soil Loss
16.2.3 Developmental Stage Affects Resistance to Soil Loss
16.2.4 Antecedent Moisture Affects Resistance to Soil Loss
16.3 Disturbance to Biocrusts Reduces Resistance to Soil Loss
16.4 Nutrient Loss with Erosion
16.5 Soil Movement at the Local to Global Scale
16.6 Future Research
References
Chapter 17: The Role of Biocrusts in Arid Land Hydrology
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.1 Biocrust-Related Factors Influencing Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.1.1 Biocrust Roughness Effects on Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.1.2 Biocrust Successional Stage and Species Composition Effects on Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.1.3 Effects of Exopolysaccharides on Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.2 Other Biocrust-Mediated Soil Factor Effects on Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.3 Antecedent Soil Moisture and Precipitation Characteristics Affecting Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.4 Influence of Biocrust Disturbance on Infiltration and Runoff
17.2.5 The Critical Importance of Scale in Infiltration/Runoff Studies
17.3 Soil Moisture Evaporation
17.4 Dew, Vapor, and Fog Inputs
17.5 Exploration of Contradictory Results
17.6 General Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Physiology of Photosynthetic Organisms Within Biological Soil Crusts: Their Adaptation,
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Importance of Scale
18.3 Climate and Microclimate
18.3.1 Boundary Layers
18.3.2 Microclimate
18.4 Water Relations of Poikilohydric Plants
18.5 Desiccation Tolerance (DT)
18.5.1 Recovery from Desiccation
18.6 Sources of Water to Biocrust Plants
18.6.1 Rainfall
18.6.2 Humid Air
18.6.3 Dew
18.6.4 Interception of Fog and Cloud Water Droplets
18.7 Mass per Unit Area and Thallus Water Content
18.7.1 Chlorophyll Content and Photosynthetic Rates
18.8 Responses of Biocrust Plants When Active
18.8.1 Responses to Hydration
18.8.2 CO2 Concentration
18.8.3 Light
18.8.4 Responses to Excess Light
18.8.5 Temperature
18.9 Reality: The Duration of Active and Inactive Periods
18.9.1 Background
18.9.2 Dry (Inactive) Periods
18.9.3 Wet (Active) Periods
18.9.4 Activity, Light, and Temperature
18.10 Conclusion: Adaptation, Flexibility, and Plasticity
References
Part IV: Interactions Between Biological Soil Crusts and Vascular Plants
Chapter 19: Interactions of Biological Soil Crusts with Vascular Plants
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Influences of Biocrusts on Colonization and Seedling Emergence of Vascular Plants
19.2.1 Seed Arrival, Retention, and Accumulation
19.2.2 Seed Germination and Seedling Emergence
19.3 Influence of Biocrusts on Seedling Establishment
19.3.1 Survival and Growth of Seedlings
19.3.2 Biomass Accumulation and Allocation
19.3.3 Phenology and Sexual Reproduction
19.4 Influences of Vascular Plants on Biocrusts
19.4.1 Canopy Shade
19.4.2 Plant Litterfall
19.4.3 Soil Properties
19.5 Nutrient Uptake by Vascular Plants as Influenced by Biocrusts
19.5.1 Availability and Uptake of Mineral Nutrients
19.5.2 Fungal Linkages Between Biocrusts and Vascular Plants
19.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Biological Soil Crusts as a Model System in Ecology
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Exploring the Biodiversity-Ecosystem Functioning Relationship with Biocrusts
20.3 Biocrusts as a Model System to Study Nitrogen Cycling
20.4 Using Biocrusts to Study Biotic Controls on Ecosystem Functioning: The Hydrology of Drylands as
20.5 Studying Biotic Interactions Using Biocrusts
20.6 Aboveground-Belowground Interactions in Biocrust-Dominated Ecosystems
20.7 Biocrusts as a Model System to Study Resistance and Resilience
20.8 Biocrusts as a Model System to Study Ecosystem Restoration
20.9 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
References
Part V: Threats to Biological Soil Crusts
Chapter 21: Effects of Local-Scale Disturbance on Biocrusts
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Direct Anthropogenic Activities
21.2.1 Agricultural Activities
21.2.1.1 Tillage and Mechanical Clearing
21.2.1.2 Herbicides
21.2.1.3 Grazing of Livestock
Negative and Unequivocal Effects of Grazing
Legacy of Grazing Effects
Taxon-Dependent Grazing Effects
Landscape- and Season-Dependent Effects of Grazing
Effects of Grazing Intensity
21.2.2 Nonagricultural Direct Human Disturbances
21.2.2.1 Military Activity
21.2.2.2 Human Foot and Vehicular Traffic
21.2.2.3 Mining
21.3 Indirect Anthropogenic Activities
21.4 Natural Disturbances
21.4.1 Fire
21.4.2 Sand Deposition
21.4.3 Drought
21.4.3.1 Drought Effects on Biomass and Cover
21.4.3.2 Drought Effects on Species Composition and Diversity
21.4.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Biocrusts in the Context of Global Change
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Elevated Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations
22.3 Climate Change
22.3.1 Temperature
22.3.2 Precipitation
22.3.3 Climate Interactions and Extremes
22.4 Nitrogen Deposition
22.5 Conclusions
References
Part VI: Natural and Enhanced Recovery and Management
Chapter 23: Natural Recovery of Biological Soil Crusts After Disturbance
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Stages and Timing of Recovery
23.3 Factors Affecting Stages and Timing of Natural Recovery
23.3.1 Climate
23.3.2 Soil
23.3.3 Severity of Disturbance
23.3.4 Timing of Disturbance as Influenced by Climatic Conditions
23.4 Hidden Dynamics
23.5 Successional Trajectories
23.5.1 Successional Pathways After Fire
23.5.2 Fog and Dew Desert Successional Pathways
23.5.3 Inland, Mesic Sandy Habitat Successional Pathways
23.5.4 Succession in Favorable Environments
23.5.5 Multiple Successional Pathways
23.6 The Changes of Soil Properties During or After Recovery of Biocrusts
23.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24: Enhanced Recovery of Biological Soil Crusts After Disturbance
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Theoretical Foundation for Rehabilitation of Biocrusts
24.2.1 Cyanobacteria
24.2.2 Mosses
24.2.3 Lichens
24.3 Principles Underlying the Practice of Biocrust Rehabilitation
24.3.1 Rehabilitation Goals
24.3.2 Choice of Species
24.3.3 Site Selection
24.3.4 Challenges: Soil Conditions
24.3.5 Challenges: Climate Regimes
24.4 The Practice and Advancement of Biocrust Rehabilitation
24.4.1 Artificial Cultivation of Cyanobacterial Biocrusts
24.4.2 Artificial Cultivation of Moss Crusts
24.4.3 Artificial Promotion of Lichen Crusts
24.4.4 Enhanced Recovery of Biocrusts by Inoculation with Natural Biocrust Material
24.5 Recovery of Ecosystem Functions via Biocrust Rehabilitation
24.5.1 Impact of Rehabilitated Biocrusts on Physical Properties of Soil Surface
24.5.2 Impact of Artificial Biocrusts on Soil Biotic Activity and Fertility
24.5.3 Impact of Artificial Biocrusts on Soil and Water Loss from Slopes
24.6 Questions Worthy of Future Study
24.7 Conclusions
References
Part VII: Future Research on Biological Soil Crusts
Chapter 25: Synthesis on Biological Soil Crust Research
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Major Advances in Research
25.3 Future Research Challenges
References
Taxonomic Index
Subject Index